The Effect of Background Color and Level of Threat on Evoked Fear and Smoking Cessation Intentions

Transcription

1 Pal. Jour. V.6, I., No. 27, Copyright 27 by Palma Journal, All Rights Reserved Available online at: The Effect of Background Color and Level of Threat on Evoked Fear and Smoking Cessation Intentions Shiva Taghilou, Department of Business Management, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran Alireza Heidarzadeh Hanzaee Corresponding Author, Department of Financial Management, Tehran North Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran Abstract This paper aims to investigate the impact of background color and level of threat and on evoked fear and intention to quit smoking. A between-subject full-factorial 2 2 experimental design was constructed (level of threat background color). A total of 6 university students participated. A MANCOVA analysis was used. The intention to quit smoking is positively influenced by perceived severity. A threat appeal with a more pleasure evoking background color leads to () increased feelings of evoked fear and (2) a higher intention to quit smoking in comparison to a threat appeal with a less pleasure evoking background color. More researches should be done to understand why perceived susceptibility does not influence intention and evoked fear according to EPPM. These findings are interesting as they open the door to create more effective threat-appeal messages by controlling or influencing the background colors of the threat appeals. The core social implication of this article is for governments and (health) practitioners who fight any kind of (health) risk among people. When researchers are able to better stipulate how threat appeals work and which elements influence their effectiveness (e.g., the background color and layout of picture), practitioners and governments benefit from this knowledge. Keywords: intention to quit smoking, threat appeal, background color Introduction Smoking is the main reson of early death. Tabacco kills about 5 million people every year, which includes one in ten adult deaths in the world (Gallopel-Morvan et al., 2). Worldwide, tobacco use is considered the leading cause of preventable death (WHO, 29). Governments have attempted to discourage smoking through various means, including mandatory health-related warning labels. These labels aim to increase smoking-related risk perception and to induce feelings of fear in order to motivate smokers to quit smoking. Anti-smoking campaigns focused on smoking-related health risks may be particularly ineffective for smokers because their risk perception is already quite high (Glock et al., 22). Fear appeals often are used in social marketing campaigns to inform people about a health risk and convencing them to do the recommended behavior or to take Preventive measures (Dillard & Anderson, 24). Changing background colors of messages or using different font colors is easy and often without extra cost. Colors with negativevalence on cigarette packages have been shown to lead to negative associations (Gallopel-Morvan et al., 2). In this research the effect of background color and level of threat on evoked fear and smoking cessation intentions is investigated. According to the EPPM (Extended Parallel Process Model), two parallel message appraisals occur when someone is exposed to a threatappeal message: () threat appraisal and (2) efficacy appraisal (Witte, 994). Color constitutes a fundamental aspect of products, packaging, brands, and all forms of marketing communications, such as advertising, Web sites, and so on; and in most cases it is the first thing that catches consumers attention (Wauters et al. 24). Research has shown on the influence of colors on a person s attitude toward a message or an ad (Lichtl e, 27). This shows that we can use this to increase the effectiveness of threat appeals. The social implication of this research is for governments and nonprofit organizations who take part in preventing unhealthy behaviors or illness and Palma Journal

2 Background Color and Level of Threat on Evoked Fear and Smoking Cessation Intentions 87 use awareness campaigns to reach that goal. They can use this study to create more effective threat appeals to augment the knowledge concerning certain dangers and to persuade people to take preventive measures or to stop an unhealthy lifestyle, by just changing their background colors, which is an easy and almost costless measure. Threat appeal Fear is a negatively-valenced emotion, accompanied by a high level of arousal, and is elicited by a threat that is perceived to be significant and personally relevant (Lang, 984). Fear may be expressed physiologically (as arousal), through language behavior (verbal self-reports), or through overt acts (facial expressions) (Lang, 984). Threat appeals are used to raise awareness about unhealthy behaviors or potential dangers and risks (Lewis et al., 27). Fear appeals are persuasive messages designed to frighten people by describing the terrible things that will happen to them if they do not do what the message recommends (Witt, 992). They often are used in social marketing campaigns to inform people about a health risk and convencing them to do the recommended behavior or to take Preventive measures (Dillard & Anderson, 24). By describing the negative results of certain risks (e.g., lung cancer for smokers) social marketers try to convince the receiver of the message to do the recommendation that is prescribed in the message (Witte, 992). Many researchers worked on the how threat appeals can motivate (Wauters et al., 24). According to the (Extended) Parallel Process Model (EPPM), two parallel message appraisals occur when someone is exposed to a threatappeal message: () threat appraisal and (2) efficacy appraisal. Threat appraisal involves the assessment of () the severity of the threat and (2) the susceptibility to the threat. Someone has to perceive the threat as severe and to be at risk of it in order for the threat appeal to produce sufficient fear to motivate (an intention) to follow the recommendation. Efficacy appraisal or coping appraisal involves the assessment of () response efficacy and (2) self-efficacy (Witte, 994; Wauters et al., 24). Smoking cessation intentions Loss-framed graphic warnings expand emotions of fear, dislike, or anxiety, have a positive impact on quitting, trying to quit or reducing smoking (Gallopel-Morvan et al., 26). According to behavioral intentions graphic labels are more effective than texts in motivating smokers to quit, to help former smokers keep without smoking and to prevent non-smokers from starting to smoke, (Gallopel-Morvan et al., 2). That is, message threat results in the cognitive mediators of perceived threat (beliefs about severity and susceptibility) and perceived efficacy (beliefs about response efficacy and self-efficacy), which elicit protection motivation, and adaptive responses, if both threat and efficacy are perceived as high (Witt, 992). Background color impact Changing background colors of messages or using different font colors is easy and often without extra cost (Gallopel-Morvan et al., 2), and can be used to increase the effectiveness of threat campaigns. However researchers have pointed toward the lack of knowledge about the effects of color in a prevention/promotion context (de Bock et al., 2). Threat appeals communicate a rather negative message, so the effect of color may be different from commercial ads, which most often convey a positive message (Wauters et al., 24). Pleasant colors lead toward positive cognitions among the viewers of the ad (Lichtl e, 27). Negative-valence colors on cigarette packages have been shown to lead toward negative associations (Gallopel-Morvan et al., 2) and an increased effect of a loss-framed message (Gerend & Sias, 29). But recent research also warns about a possible opposite effect when using color cues in negatively framed messages (de Bock et al., 2). Different colors are known to evoke different emotions (Wauters et al., 24). Most of the early researches on color preferences ignored to control for saturation and brightness. The emotional reactions to colors show different color patches evoke pleasure and arousal. Blue is a pleasurable and yellow is a disliked color (Valdez and Mehrabian, 994). Positive effects of the blue background, as compared to the yellow background on perceived susceptibility and severity, indicating

3 88 S.Taghilou and A.H.Hanzaee a higher acceptance of the threat message when it is presented against a more pleasure evoking background color. The background color of a threat-appeal message can play an important role in the effectiveness of that message (Wauters et al. 24). Research Hypotheses H: The intention to quit smoking is positively influenced by () perceived severity, (2) perceived susceptibility, () response efficacy, and (4) selfefficacy as well as by (5) the evoked feelings of fear. H2: Evoked fear is positively influenced by () perceived severity and (2) perceived susceptibility. H: A threat appeal displaying more severe consequences of smoking leads to () increased perceived severity and (2) increased perceived susceptibility in comparison to a threat appeal portrays less threatening consequences smoking. H4: A threat appeal displaying more severe consequences of smoking leads to () increased evoked fear and (2) a higher intention to quit smoking comparison to a threat appeal portraying less threatening consequences of smoking. H5: A threat appeal with a more pleasure evoking background color leads to () increased perceived severity, (2) increased perceived susceptibility, () increased response efficacy, and (4) increased self-efficacy in comparison to a threat appeal with a less pleasure evoking background color. H6: A threat appeal with a more pleasure evoking background color leads to () increased feelings of evoked fear and (2) a higher intention to quit smoking in comparison to a threat appeal with a less pleasure evoking background color. H7: The positive impact of a more pleasure evoking background color on () perceived severity, (2) perceived susceptibility, () response efficacy, and (4) self-efficacy is less pronounced when a high-threat appeal is involved as compared to in case of a low-threat appeal. Methodology Design and Stimuli A between-subject full-factorial 2 2 experimental design was constructed (level of threat background color). Two threat-appeal messages were designed to promote smoking cessation, differing in the level of threat presented (level of threat: low/high) and displayed against different pleasure-eliciting background colors (background color: yellow [unpleasant]/blue [pleasant]). The health risk chosen for the threat message was Laryngeal cancer which was the most unpleasant risk of smoking. The baseline of the message read Are you smoking? with a text affirming the self-efficacy and response efficacy and the recommendation was formulated in the slogan quit smoking.. A distinction was made between two levels of threat. For the high-threat condition, 4 pictures of throat with Laryngeal cancer were displayed and under the picture Smoking results in Laryngeal cancer was written. For the low-threat a picture of throat with a little redness was displayed and under the picture Smoking may be result in Laryngeal cancer was written. It stated the following: smoking is unhealthy and is bad for you and result in cancer. If you are smoking, may be you will be the next! The chance of Laryngeal cancer is one out of 5 for smokers. Quit smoking and become healthy. The low fear evoking message contained the text: smoking is unhealthy and is bad for you and result in cancer. If you are smoking, may be you will be the next! The chance of Laryngeal cancer is one out of 5 for smokers. Quit smoking and become healthy. For the background of the threat appeals, two different background colors were selected for their various pleasure-evoing properties (Valdez & Mehrabian, 994; Wauters et al., 24): i.e., yellow (R7G46B52, 5Y chroma 8, value 6), which is found to be a rather unpleasant hue, and blue (R9G6B2, 5B chroma 8, value 6), which is found to be a more pleasant hue. In order to eliminate any confusion between arousal and valence effects (Wauters et al., 24), these hues were also specifically selected as they are noted to evoke a similar amount of arousal (Valdez & Mehrabian, 994).

4 Background Color and Level of Threat on Evoked Fear and Smoking Cessation Intentions 89 No Variable Perceived susceptibility self-efficacy response efficacy evoked fear The intention to quit smoking 4 Table. Measures Scale semantic differential Resource RBDS; Witte, McKeon, Cameron, & Berkowitz, 995 RBDS; Witte, McKeon, Cameron, & Berkowitz, 995 RBDS; Witte, McKeon, Cameron, & Berkowitz, 995 RBDS; Witte, McKeon, Cameron, & Berkowitz, 995 Keller and Block [996] Ajzen and Fishbein 98 Participants and Procedure A convenience sample of 6 respondents (68 females, 5.2%, 48 males, 46.8%). Respondents were from different levels in university (65% undergraduate, 25% master, 9% PH.D, % Associate Degree). According to a number picked by the respondents ( 4), they either saw the low/highthreat level with either a yellow or blue background color. After seeing these stimuli the respondents were asked to fill in the questionnaire. Results A MANCOVA analysis was performed with level of threat and ad background color as fixed factors and gender, student of university level and age as a covariate. After seeing a threat appeal with a high level of threat, the respondents reported a higher perceived severity as compared to when seeing a low-level threat appeal f=7.76, Sig=.<.5 (Mean high threat =2.94) is more than (Mean low threat =2.6) so Ha is confirmed. The intention to quit smoking was also higher after seeing a high-level threat appeal (M low threat =. vs. M high threat =.4, f=8.778, Sig=.4<.5), confirming H4b. The results also revealed two significant effects for ad background color. The respondents seeing a blue, more pleasure evoking threat appeal reported a higherperceived severity (M yellow = 2.28 vs. M blue = 2.98, f=2.7, Sig=.<.5), confirming H5a and a higher perceived susceptibility (M yellow =.777 vs. M blue = 4.47, f=4.262, Sig=.<.5), confirming H5b, compared to those who saw the threat appeals presented against a less pleasant yellow background. The respondents seeing a blue, more pleasure-evoking threat appeal reported a high intention to quit smoking (M yellow = 2.875vs. M blue = 2.98, f=.8, Sig=.8<.5), confirming H6a, compared to those who saw the threat appeals presented against a less pleasant yellow background. Also for evoked fear M yellow =.vs. M blue =., f=5.94, Sig=.6<.5, confirming H6b. The interaction indicates that background color affects perceived severity in high- threat appeal is higher than low-threat apeal (f=5.977, Sig=.<.5), confirming H7a. A (marginally) significant interaction effect (see Figure ) indicates however that the ad background color only seemed to affect perceived susceptibility in the case of a low-threat appeal, but not in the case of a high-level threat appeal. Highthreat messages appeared to generate the highest perceived susceptibility in general, regardless of the background color (f=.98, Sig=.<.5). Interaction between self-effiency and pleasure-evoking color is higher in high-threat appeal f=9.276, Sig=.<.5, confirming H7d. Five paths were significant. Hypotheses Ha, Hc, H2a are confirmed, but the results did not confirm H2a, H4a, H5a and H2b. Table 2. Demographic variables % Frequency Female Male Associate Degree Undergraduate Master PH.D < >4 total Gender Student of : Age

5 9 S.Taghilou and A.H.Hanzaee Cronbach's alpha Table. Cronbach's alpha variables Perceived Severity Response Efficacy Self-Efficacy Evoked Fear The Intention to Quit Smoking Perceived susceptibility Figure.Interaction effect of threat level and background color on perceived susceptibility Figure 2.Interaction effect of threat level and background color on perceived severity.

6 Background Color and Level of Threat on Evoked Fear and Smoking Cessation Intentions 9 Source changes 47% % 2% 9% 5% 47% 9% 9% 7% 29% % 6% Effect size Significant level Table 4. Mancova Results F Mean Square Degrees of freedom Sum of squares Source changes Threat appeal Background color Threat appeal* Background color Discussions The main objective of this research was to find out whether the use of a less vs. a more pleasure evoking background color (yellow vs. blue) in a threat appeal impacts the threat and efficacy appraisals. The results show positive effects of the blue background, versus to the yellow background on both threat appraisals; perceived susceptibility and severity, displaying a higher acceptance of the threat message when it is shown against a more pleasure evoking background color. However, an interesting interaction appeared with attention to perceived susceptibility. In case of a low-level threat appeal, the pleasure-evoking blue message evoked more vulnerability feelings considering the yellow message. The respondents saw a highlevel threat appeal said they feel more vulnerable (i.e., higher perceived severity), experience more fear and have a higher intention to quit smoking as compared to those saw a low-level threat appeal. The key results of this study determined that the background color of a threat-appeal message can have an important role in the influence of that message. A pleasure-evoking background color in the threat appeal helps to present the message better. It is advisable to use such low-level threat appeals when working with defenseless groups, such as children and elderly. In that case, the color used in the background of the threat message can increase perceived severity and perceived susceptibility. It was investigated to find out which of the features of the EPPM had an effect on the intention to act on the recommended behavior. Unexpectedly, perceived susceptibility did not appear to have any effect, neither on feelings of evoked fear nor on intention to quit smoking. Maybe it is because nowadays anyone can get a cancer and cancer is a very near to everyone not only to smokers. Between perceived severity and evoked fear is relationship, if a person finds the threat severe, he experiences more feelings of fear. To persuade people to preventing diseases or do recommended behavior, some fear should be evoked among the receivers of threat message. Conclusion Using colors can have an impact on a person s attitude toward an ad (Lichtl e, 27). This article looks at the possible effects of color on the influence of threat appeals. Researchers have mentioned the lack of information about the effects of color, especially in a prevention/promotion context (de Bock et al., 2). Governments can use this information to make better threat messages and campagines to prevent people from risk or make them do recommended behavior. Because threat appeals present a rather negative message, the impact of color may be different from commercial ads, which most often convey a positive message. This research investigates that how background color can make threat message more effective. This study investigated the effect of a less or more pleasure eliciting background color in a threat appeal promoting smoking cessation intention. As background colors blue and yellow were chosen (respectively Error

7 92 S.Taghilou and A.H.Hanzaee known for their more and less pleasure evoking properties) and the authors tested how those background colors influenced the effectiveness of the threat appeals. A more pleasurable background color in the threat appeal apparently helps to present the message better by increasing perceived severity and susceptibility. The more pleasurable blue background color led toward higher perceived susceptibility in comparison to the less appealing yellow background color in case of a low-level threat appeal. In case of a high-threat appeal however, message processing occurs more centrally, with a more elaborate focus on the content of the message arguments. Under such conditions, simple heuristic cues such as colors are less effective (de Hoog et al., 25). Still, in comparison to the less appealing yellow background color, the more pleasurable blue color managed to generate not only increased perceptions of vulnerability in case of a low threat, but also to increase perceptions of severity under both threat conditions. These findings can be used to create more effective threat-appeal messages by changing the background colors of the threat appeals. Thus, the knowledge and literature about colors and their effects on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors should be kept in mind when designing, testing, and using threatappeal messages. Based on the current research it is advisable to use pleasant colors to convey threat messages. Still, there are many factors contributing to an individual s response to color, for instance cultural background (Wauters et al., 24 ;Madden et al., 22), socio-demographic characteristics (Singh, 26), lifestyle, personal preference, and past experience (Wauters et al., 24). It is therefore extremely important to adapt the chosen color to the target to be reached with the threat message. The social implication of this article is for governments and (health) practitioners who fight any kind of (health) risk among people. When researchers describe how threat appeals work and which elements influence their effectiveness (e.g., the background color), practitioners and governments benefit from this knowledge and are able to create better threat appeals. References Dillard, J. P., & Anderson, J. W. (24). The role of fear in persuasion. Psychology & Marketing, 2, De Bock, T., Pandelaere, M., & van Kenhove, P. (2). When colors backfire: The impact of color cues on moral judgment. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 2, De Hoog, N., Stroebe, W., & de Wit, J. B. F. (25). The impact of fear appeals on processing and acceptance of action recommendations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,, 24. Gallopel-Morvan, K., Gabriel, P., Le Gall-Ely, M., Sophie, R., & Urien, B. (2). The use of visual warnings in social marketing: The case of tobacco. Journal of Business Research, 64, 7. Gallopel-Morvan, K., Gabriel, P., Le Gall-Ely, M., Sophie, R., & Urien, B. (2). Plain packaging and public health: The case of tobacco. Journal of Business Research, 66, 6. Glock,S., Unz, D., & Kovacs, C. (22). Beyond fear appeals: Contradicting positive smoking outcome expectancies to influence smokers' implicit attitudes, perception, and behavior. Addictive Behaviors, 7, Lang, P.J. (984). Cognition in emotion: Concept and action. In C.E. Izard, J. Kagan, & R.B. Zajonc (Eds.), Emotions, cognition, and behavior (pp ). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lewis, I., Watson, B., Tay, R., & White, K. M. (27). The role of fear appeals in improving driver safety: A review of the effectiveness of fear-arousing (threat) appeals in road safety advertising. International Journal of Behavioral and Consultation Therapy,, Lichtl e, M.-C. (27). The effect of an advertisment s colour on emotions evoked by an ad and attitude towards the ad. International Journal of Advertising, 26, Madden, J. T., Hewett, K., & Roth, S. M. (22). Managing images in different cultures: A cross-national study of color meanings and preferences. Journal of International Marketing, 8, 9 7. Valdez, P., & Mehrabian, A. (994). Effects of color on emotions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2, 94. Wauters, B., Brengman, M., & Mahama, F. (24). The impact of pleasure-evoking colors on the effectiveness of threat (fear) appeals. Psychology & Marketing,, 5-6. Witte, K. (992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals. The extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs 59, Witte, K. (994). Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 6, 4. World Health Organization (29).WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic. Retrieved from.