Developmental Theories

Transcription

1 Developmental Theories

2 The Relationship between a Theory and Research What is a theory? An explanation of what, how or why. In development, it explains change in us over time A guideline for future research, and it helps us understand current research It is not a fact. It can often (but not always) be tested through research

3 Freud s Psychosexual Theory: Background Freud: (b.1856-d.1939) Treated women, (who were inferior to men) with Hysteria using the talking cure Emphasis on early childhood... nothing for adults Strong focus on mental illness and helping his patients learn to accept reality using defense mechanisms

4 Defense Mechanisms! These arise because our raw desires are socially unacceptable Repression Regression Rationalization Denial Sublimation Displacement Projection Reaction Formation

5 Freud s Parts of the Self Id: inborn, fully unconscious, and driven by the pleasure principle Ego: healthy, realistic, reasonable part that negotiates compromise using the reality principle. Superego: our conscience, guided by society s values, morals and rules. Guided by a sense of guilt

6 Psychosexual Development Oral Stage: birth to age 2 Anal Stage: toilet training Phallic Stage: early childhood Latency Stage: middle childhood Genital Stage: puberty through adult

7 Erikson s Psychosocial Theory Student of Freud s Emphasized the Ego and conscious choices Development influenced by culture and parenting Father of Developmental Psychology

8 Erikson s First Four Stages Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (toddlers) Initiative vs. Guilt (early childhood) Industry vs. Inferiority (middle childhood)

9 Erikson s Last Four Stages Identity vs. Role Confusion (teens) Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood) Generativity vs. Stagnation (midlife adults) Integrity vs. Despair (late adults)

10 Issues with Erikson? He focused heavily on stages rather than continuous development He assumed that failure to successfully complete a stage would impair progress in future stages He presumed that the psychosocial issues encountered in each stage were universal (i.e. not influenced by culture)

11 Learning Theories: 1 st was Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Learning through association Explains feelings or emotions Gut level (autonomic) reactions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems Dogs learn to drool to the sound of a bell or metronome

12 Classical Conditioning Terms Before conditioning Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response (pre-existing reflex) After conditioning Conditioned stimulus (now associated with US) Conditioned response

13 Learning Theory #2: Behaviorism Thorndike s cats help him discover the law of effect, which helps us define what a reinforcer is, and what a punisher is. Watson builds on Thorndike s and Pavlov s work, using rewards to manipulate others Kids can learn to love or hate anything! They are not at the mercy of their genes! Little Albert develops a conditioned emotional response due to punishment

14 Reinforcers Reinforcer defined: anything that increases the odds that a behavior is repeated Intrinsic or primary reinforcers like food are necessary for our survival Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are often learned via classical conditioning Reinforcers may be positive or negative

15 Positive and Negative Reinforcers? Positive reinforcers seem more intuitive Deliver or add something to increase the odds a behavior gets repeated. Example: gold star for good behavior Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant to increase the odds a behavior gets repeated Example: a headache remedy.

16 Punishment may also be positive or negative Less effective than reinforcers. Suppresses rather than stops Doesn t teach a desired behavior. Leads to a focus on mistakes. Positive (add or deliver) seems intuitive (spanking) Negative (remove) also works: put your kid in a time out

17 Social Learning Theory We can learn from others without conditioning or training Modeling or learning by observation Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiment on Aggression Explains learning complex behaviors

18 Cognitive Theories: How does thinking change over time? Piaget: father of cognitive psychology Children s thinking and reasoning varies from age to age, and from adults Maturation is a major influence. Stages! We are seeking cognitive equilibrium We use schemas to organize our concepts and adapt to new situations (assimilation and accommodation) Neglects importance of outside influences like culture, family, peers, cohorts, etc.

19 Piaget s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor (birth to 2) relies on sensory feedback and motor skill development Preoperational (early childhood) thinks using symbols or words, but not much logic Concrete operational (middle childhood) now we have logic and conversions Formal Operational (adolescence adulthood) here we can handle abstract ideas, consider possibilities and hypothetical situations

20 Sociocultural Theory: Vygotsky Cognitive abilities change with guidance, not just as a function of time, maturation or stages Scaffolding: support system for extending/expanding a child s skills Zone of Proximal Development: potential next range of cognitive skills a child may develop

21 Bronfenbrenner s Ecological Systems Model Developmental changes are influenced by a network of social forces Development does not occur in a vacuum. We should focus on context.

22 The Ecological Systems Model Microsystems Mesosystems Exosystems Macrosystems Chronosystems