Defining Psychology Behaviorism: Social Psychology: Milgram s Obedience Studies Bystander Non-intervention Cognitive Psychology:

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1 Defining Psychology Behaviorism: The scientific study of how rewards and punishment in the environment affect human and non-human behavior Empirical approach: vary contingencies of reward and punishment and measure effect on behavior Try to explain all behavior without going inside the black box (the mind) Social Psychology: The scientific study of the way in which people s thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by the social environment. Empirical approach: Vary aspects of social environment and see how this affects thoughts, feelings, or behavior, on average. Posit psychological explanations (i.e., processes that take place inside the mind) for observed effects Milgram s Obedience Studies Bystander Non-intervention The scientific study of basic mental abilities--e.g., perception, learning, memory, language, problem-solving; Focus on information-processing ; use mind-as-computer analogy Empirical approach: vary information input, measure performance output Posits psychological processes inside the mind that account for observed effects Classic examples Short-term memory: 7 +/- 2 (Miller, 1956) Stroop Effect (Stroop, 1935) Stroop Effect Result: it s easier to name ink color alone than in presence of conflicting color-name Conclusion: we process the meaning of words automatically, without intention 1

2 without intention Classic examples Visual search (Treisman & Souther, 1985) Find the Q Classic examples Visual search Result: people find the Q among O s more quickly than the O among Q s Conclusion: we are more efficient at representing the presence of a feature than the absence of a feature Social Cognition The scientific study of how people make sense of their social world: How they perceive, represent, interpret, and remember information about themselves and about other individuals and groups Applies theories and methodologies from cognitive psychology ( information processing approach ) to classic social psychological questions Social Cognition: Examples Phenomenon of interest: Stereotyping Classic Social psychological approaches: Competition: Robber s cave experiment (Sherif et al., 1954/1961) Social Learning and Normative Influence: e.g., Pettigrew s (1958) study of army recruits Social Cognitive approach focuses on information-processing, introducing new methodologies and new theories New theories An information-processing approach also suggests new ways of explaining classic social psychological phenomenon e.g., Treisman & Souther bias towards noticing presence of features as opposed to absence 2

3 20 21 e.g., Treisman & Souther bias towards noticing presence of features as opposed to absence Help to explain persistence of stereotypic beliefs? Social and Cultural Groups Multicultural Perspectives Cultural Diversity: A Fact of Life Individualism and Collectivism: Two Cultural Worldviews Individualism A cultural orientation in which personal goals and preferences take priority over group allegiances Collectivism A cultural orientation in which cooperation and group harmony take priority over purely personal goals Individualism and Collectivism Self-conceptions People from individualistic cultures see themselves as individualistic and distinct from others (top). People in collectivist cultures see themselves as interdependent, part of a larger social network (bottom). Individualism and Collectivism Self-Conceptions: Uniqueness or Conformity? Which subfigure within each set do you prefer? U.S. Americans like those that stand out as unique. Koreans like those that fit in with the group. Individualism and Collectivism Bilingual students in Hong Kong completed I am sentences in English or Chinese. Students responding in English focused more on personal 3

4 Students responding in English focused more on personal traits. Students responding in Chinese focused more on group affiliations. Multicultural Perspectives Acculturation and Ethnic Identity Acculturation The process by which individuals are changed by their immersion in a new culture Ethnic Identity The part of a person s identity that is defined by an ethnic heritage, language, history, customs, and so on Acculturative Stress The stress and mental-health problems often found in immigrants trying to adjust to a new culture Multicultural Perspectives Acculturation and Ethnic Identity Acculturation Strategies Multicultural Perspectives Acculturation and Ethnic Identity Cultural Identity and Acculturative Stress Hispanic American college students answered questions about Hispanic and American identities and acculturative stress. Students who embraced both cultures reported less acculturative stress. Discrimination Behavior directed against persons because of their affiliation with a social group Stereotype A belief that associates a group of people with certain traits Stereotypes: The Cognitive Roots Stereotypes are Formed Via Two Processes Social Categorization The classification of persons into groups based on common 4

5 The classification of persons into groups based on common attributes Outgroup-Homogeneity Bias The tendency to assume that they (members of groups other than our own) are all alike Stereotypes: The Cognitive Roots Is Stereotyping Inevitable? People can bring stereotypes into mind automatically, without awareness, and stereotypes can bias judgments of others. However, people can stop themselves from using stereotypes as a basis of judging others. By encouraging people to take the perspective of someone from a stereotyped group By imagining individuals who do not fit the stereotype Prejudice Negative feelings toward others based solely on their membership in a certain group Two Major Motivational Theories of Prejudice Realistic-Conflict Theory The theory that prejudice stems from intergroup competition for limited resources Social-Identity Theory The theory that people favor ingroups and discriminate against outgroups in order to enhance their own self-esteem r This theory helps explain Ingroup Favoritism The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups. 5

6 35 Social Identity Theory Personal identity and social identity both contribute to selfesteem. Viewing and treating ingroups more favorably than outgroups can boost self-esteem. Social Identity Theory Social-identity theory makes two predictions: Threats to self-esteem should increase the need to show prejudice Expressions of prejudice should restore one s self-esteem Derogation in the Service of Self-Esteem Subjects were given positive or negative feedback, then rated a female job applicant they thought was Jewish or Italian. Subjects with lowered self-esteem, due to negative feedback, rated the Jewish woman lower than the Italian woman. Derogation in the Service of Self-Esteem Subjects given negative feedback who could belittle the Jewish woman showed an increase in self-esteem. Racism A deep-seated form of prejudice that is based on the color of a person s skin Difficult to assess Racist acts can be subtle Best strategy is to use indirect questions and measures (e.g., reaction time, the speed of responses) 6

7 The Implicit Association Test (IAT) Racial Disparities in Medical Care Black patients were less likely to receive many types of medical care compared to White patients. This discrimination occurred regardless of socioeconomic status. White and nonwhite people disagree about the degree of racism that still exists. Professional athletes were surveyed and large differences were found in who believed that black athletes were discriminated against. 63% of black athletes 2% of white athletes See same trend in the U.S. military. The Treatment Subjects worked in separate three-person groups. Groups were brought together for a neutral or a cooperative interaction. Subjects working on the neutral task showed favoritism in evaluating members of their own group. Subjects working on the cooperative task showed no favoritism. They became a part of Us The Treatment: The Contact Hypothesis The proposition that in certain conditions, direct contact between members of rival groups will improve relations 7

8 44 The proposition that in certain conditions, direct contact between members of rival groups will improve relations The necessary conditions are: The groups should have equal status There should be personal interactions among the individual members The groups should have a common goal that requires cooperation The contact should be supported by social norms The Treatment: The Contact Hypothesis A successful example is the jigsaw classroom. In this model, everyone needs everyone else if the individual and the group as a whole are to succeed. Compared to schoolchildren in traditional classes, those in jigsaw classrooms: Liked each other more Were more tolerant Liked school more Had higher self-esteem And, test scores improved for minority children Impression Formation Stereotyping preconceived notions of a person or thing. Can be positive or negative. Cognitive-Confirmation Bias A person will search for information that confirms their beliefs, but goes against the truth. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy If you hear that a person has a certain skill (good or bad) you will assume that they have this skill. Fundamental Attribution Error Suggest we tend to make attributions about causes of behavior being internal and not external. Actor-Perceiver Bias 8

9 Actor-Perceiver Bias Another attribution error we make. If we are doming something, we believe our behavior is due to external causes; if we are watching someone else, we believe behavior is internal. Self-Serving Bias We attribute causes of behavior to external causes if we fail, and internal causes when we succeed. Obedience Bias Milgram s famous study, participants were shocked other participants because they were told to do so. Normally the people would not do this behavior, but because they were told to do so they did it. Nazi Germany is a clear example. Compliance Bias When behavior changes because of a request. We are more likely to do something when another person has done something for us. Called reciprocity. Foot-In-The Door Technique If you comply with a small request, you will comply with a large one. Social Loafing Occurs when one member of the group does not carry his weight Groupthink This can occur when people have a desire to maintain good relations within the group. The take on the view of the leader, when not their own view. 9