Individual attitudes and social influences on college students intent to participate in study abroad programs

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1 Journal of Marketing for Higher Education ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: Individual attitudes and social influences on college students intent to participate in study abroad programs Liz C. Wang, John (Jack) Gault, Paul Christ & Patricia A. Diggin To cite this article: Liz C. Wang, John (Jack) Gault, Paul Christ & Patricia A. Diggin (2016) Individual attitudes and social influences on college students intent to participate in study abroad programs, Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 26:1, , DOI: / To link to this article: Published online: 17 Mar Submit your article to this journal Article views: 614 View Crossmark data Citing articles: 2 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

2 JOURNAL OF MARKETING FOR HIGHER EDUCATION, 2016 VOL. 26, NO. 1, Individual attitudes and social influences on college students intent to participate in study abroad programs Liz C. Wang a, John (Jack) Gault b, Paul Christ b and Patricia A. Diggin b a AMA, College of Business and Public Affairs, West Chester University of Pennsylvania, West Chester, PA, USA; b College of Business and Public Affairs, West Chester University, University of Pennsylvania, West Chester, PA, USA ABSTRACT Participation in study abroad programs (SAPs) is widely viewed as offering important professional and personal benefits for college students. This study applies the Theory of Reasoned Action [Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.] as a theoretical framework to better understand how undergraduate students individual attitudes and subjective norms from three social groups (family, friends and professors) impact their intent to participate in SAPs. Surveys were conducted at three public and private universities in the USA and Taiwan. The results suggest that both individual attitudes and subjective norms are influential factors for college students, and the effects are dependent on the type of SAPs. The current research offers several additions to the SAPs literature. Also, the results offer new insights for higher education and other institutional managers for increasing student participation in SAPs. ARTICLE HISTORY Received 27 October 2014 Accepted 31 July 2015 KEYWORDS Study abroad programs; Theory of Reasoned Action; career development; individual attitudes; social influence Introduction To better prepare undergraduates for working in multicultural environments, many governments and college-accrediting bodies, such as the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), have been strong advocates of study abroad programs (SAPs) as a way for undergraduate students to develop global citizenship and greater levels of intercultural competence skills (e.g. Sison & Brennan, 2012; Wright & Clarke, 2010). With increasing global economic interdependence, employers are placing increased value on studying abroad (Trooboff, Vande Berg, & Rayman, 2008). A recent survey of study abroad alumni indicates that they found entry-level positions sooner and more often in their chosen fields, while also earning higher starting salaries (Cook-Anderson, 2013). In addition to students, SAPs also benefit countries (Sison & Brennan, 2012) by providing greater opportunities for international trade, greater capacity to develop international relationships and greater levels of understanding of cultural differences. The number of US students participating in SAPs was over 280,000 during the 2011/ 2012 academic year (Institute of International Education [IIE], Open Doors, 2013 Fast CONTACT Liz C. Wang 2016 Taylor & Francis cwang@wcupa.edu

3 104 L. C. WANG ET AL. Facts). By contrast, during the 2012/2013 academic year, the number of international students studying in the USA totaled over 819,000. Additionally, the growth rate for US students studying abroad was slower with only a 3.4% increase, compared to a faster rate of 7.2% for international students studying in the USA (IIE, OpenDoors, 2013 Fast Facts). The slower growth rate in the USA may, however, suggest barriers exist to SAPs. For instance, financial concerns, time constraints and the ability to earn credit are possible issues for SAP participation (Albers-Miller, Pennelope, & Straughan, 1999). These barriers make the study abroad decision-making process challenging for many undergraduates. While the importance and benefits of SAPs for undergraduates are well documented (e.g., Cook-Anderson, 2013; Sison & Brennan, 2012), more research is needed to address methods for increasing student participation (Garver & Divine, 2007). A recent stream of research focusing on factors that most motivate students to participate in SAPs provides insightful suggestions for increasing student participation, such as financial support, career prospects, family support and demographic characteristics (Goel, de Jong, & Schunsenberg, 2010; Presley, Damron-Martinez, & Zhang, 2010; Schnusenberg & de Jong, 2012). However, some questions are still not addressed in the SAP research. For example, Schnusenberg and de Jong (2012) suggest examining affective attitude to enhance existing knowledge in SAP literature, while Salisbury, Paulsen, and Pascarella (2011) suggest the need to better understand how social influences impact one s decision-making process in SAPs. This research attempts to investigate these questions. Specifically, the objective of the current research is to better understand how undergraduate students individual cognitive and affective attitudes and subjective norms from various social groups impact their intent to participate in SAPs. The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) provides a basis to simultaneously consider both personal attitudes and social influences (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Shimp & Kavas, 1984). Three studies were conducted in different settings of higher education in the USA and Taiwan. The results provide marketing suggestions for colleges and universities to promote SAPs to their undergraduate students. This study also offers several additions to the SAP literature. First, this study includes students affective attitudes and examines social influences from three referent groups. Second, multidimensional constructs are incorporated to present personal beliefs and evaluations (Bagozzi, 1981). The antecedents of personal attitude can be further explored. Third, the findings from three different institutions are more likely to be generalizable to different settings of higher education. Lastly, the study examines crossover effects between individual attitudes and normative influences (Ryan, 1982). Literature review The extant literature on studying abroad suggests many positive benefits for SAP participants. For example, SAP participants appear to have a more globally minded attitude and greater intercultural proficiency (Clarke, Flaherty, Wright, & McMillan, 2009), better intercultural communication skills or life-changing experience (Wright & Larsen, 2012), increasing cultural awareness (Black & Duhon, 2006), improved cognitive and attitudinal learning effects (Paul & Mukhopadhyay, 2003; Schuster, Zimmerman, Schertzer, & Beamish, 1998), greater receptiveness to global perspectives on issues (Douglas & Jones-Rikkers, 2001) and a wider global view (Wright & Clarke, 2010). Business organizations are also placing

4 JOURNAL OF MARKETING FOR HIGHER EDUCATION 105 increased value on college students study abroad experiences (Trooboff et al., 2008). SAPs may provide benefits to countries as well, such as greater opportunities to enter global markets or to develop better international relationships (Sison & Brennan, 2012). However, there are still many barriers to participating in SAPs. Financial issues, time constraints, academic credits, trip location, language and career benefits can be key concerns (Albers-Miller et al., 1999; Belyavina, 2013; Garver & Divine, 2007). The study abroad decision-making process involves a complex sequence of decisions with many choices and constraints (Salisbury et al., 2011) that can be challenging and complicated for college students who have no prior study abroad experience. Theories related to students intent toward SAP decisions Previous SAP research has focused on the logistics of traveling to new countries, activities after arrival, attitudes and skills acquired during SAPs (e.g. enhanced global perspective, favorable attitudes toward the host country) and destination choices (Mazzarol, 2002; Wright & Larsen, 2012). Other research has focused on the influential factors motivating students to participate in SAPs, such as financial aid, career prospects, family support and demographics (Goel et al., 2010; Presley et al., 2010; Schnusenberg & de Jong, 2012). Previous studies have applied expectancy theory (Relyea, Cocchiara, & Studdard, 2008), intercultural attitude theory (Kim & Goldstein, 2005), and social learning theory (McLeod & Wainwright, 2009) to better understand factors shaping college students decisions to study abroad. Despite this extant research into SAPs, other possible factors, such as affective attitude (Schnusenberg & de Jong, 2012) and social influences from different referent groups (Salisbury et al., 2011), remain unknown. Table 1 summarizes the selected SAP studies that have focused on factors influencing college students decision-making process. Table 1 displays the theoretical framework, research methods, sample characteristics, constructs or factors examined, and findings for each study. For example, Albers-Miller et al. (1999) surveyed US undergraduates perceptions of SAPs in general. Garver and Divine (2007) used conjoint analysis to identify the eight key attributes in US students decision-making process for SAPs. Using a logistic regression model, Salisbury et al. (2011) applied an integrated student choice model and human capital theory to explore differences in the factors influencing white and minority college students intent to study abroad. On the other hand, Pope, Sanchez, Lehnert, and Schmid (2014) applied the desire for individual growth as theoretical background to examine US Generation Y s intent to study abroad. These studies indicate important factors in the US college students decision-making process for SAPs. Other studies applied the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as a theoretical and comprehensive framework when examining study abroad decisions. The TPB model suggests that behavioral intention is determined by three general factors concerning the behavior in question: attitude toward the behavior (A), subjective norm (SN) and perceived behavioral control (PBC) (Ajzen, 1991). The TPB is an extension of TRA with the addition of PBC. Presley et al. (2010) used a regression model to find significant effects of the three factors in undergraduates SAP decisions. Using structural modeling, Goel et al. (2010) examined individual beliefs, subjective beliefs (only family) and PBC (only experience of faculty) on college students intent to participate in SAPs, though they only found significant effects of individual beliefs. Schnusenberg & de Jong, (2012) applied the TPB model and

5 106 L. C. WANG ET AL. Table 1. Selected research on college students intent to participate in SAPs. Study Theoretical framework Research method Sample information Constructs Intent to participate in SAPs Important findings Albers-Miller et al. (1999) Descriptive nature. No specific theories discussed. Survey N = 656 college students from seven universities General perceptions of international course work General perceptions of SAPs, Perceptions of SAP costs in time and money Desired program characteristics Lack of desire to gain international exposure Very favorable Student concerns about time and money Preferred the program taught by their university faculty, credit transferred Goel et al. (2010) TPB & Trait Theory Survey Structural equation model N = 133 college business students from one US university Garver and Divine (2007) Literature review and focus group interviews to identify the key attributes for SAPs. Personality traits Survey Conjoint Analysis N = 210 college business students from one US university Presley et al. (2010) TPB Survey Regression analysis N = 188 college business students from 1 U.S. university Salisbury et. al. (2011) Integrated model of student choice model & human capital theory Survey Logistic regression N = 6828 college students from 53 institutions Importance to academic or career goals (behavioral belief) Family support (subjective beliefs) Experience of faculty (control belief) Overall attribute importance for participating SAPs. Trip location Price Time abroad Language spoken in the course Career benefits Curriculum relevance to major Living accommodation Graduation date delays Behavioral beliefs (Attitude) Experiencing a new culture; Improving language skills; Opportunity to grow and develop as a person; Interesting and/or fun experience; Opening new career opportunity; Homesickness; Delay or disruption of academic program Subjective norms from referent groups parents, significant others, friends, professors, coaches and other sponsors of academic or co-curricular activities, future employers. Perceived control beliefs: a function of perception of the availability of skills, resources and opportunities and perceived facilitation Five major factors: (1) Human capital (2) Financial capital (3) Pre-college social/cultural capital (4) In-college social/cultural capital (5) Habitus gender, parental education, aspire to graduate degree Dependent variable likelihood of intent to study abroad Significant support; behavioral beliefs are positively related to intention to participate in SAPs. Not significant Not significant Importance Score to participate in SAPs (Sum adds to 100%): 18.46% Significant support: behavioral beliefs are positively related to study abroad intention. Significant support: subjective normative beliefs are positively related to study abroad intention. Significant support: perceived control beliefs are positively related to study abroad intention. The results from the regression model did not indicate the importance of each construct, or each item Four segments: White, African, Asian and Hispanic Americans (1) Significant to African-Americans (2) Significant to all except African- Americans (3) Significant to White (4) Significant to African-Americans (5) Significant to all except Hispanic Americans (Continued)

6 JOURNAL OF MARKETING FOR HIGHER EDUCATION 107 Table 1. Continued. Study Theoretical framework Research method Sample information Constructs Intent to participate in SAPs Important findings Schnusenberg and de Jong (2012) TPB Survey Structural Model N = 254 college business students from one US university Desire affective state of desire to participate in an SAP Willingness to pay cognitive decision, including future job prospects, family expectation, administrative support Affordability economic consideration of the financial capacity of an individual to participate in an SAP. Dependent variable intent to participate in a short-term SAP led by faculty for a period of days Significant support: desire is positively related to intention to participate in SAPs. Significant support: willingness to pay is positively related to intention to participate in SAPs. Significant support: affordability is positively related to intention to participate in SAPs Fitzsimmons et al. (2013) TPB Survey Regression analysis N = 204 college business students from one US university Pope et al. (2014) The desire for individual growth as motivation Regression analysis N = 292 college business students from one US university The three general factors of the TPB Attitudes Subjective norms PBC Dependent variable intent to Study abroad on a short-term program and on a longterm program Predictive variables: Desire for individual growth Gender Parent s educational level Prior international experience Younger age Higher household income Dependent variable intent to study abroad Focused on the three general factors of TBP Significant support Significant support Partially significant on a long-term program Significant support for that individual growth motivates Gen Y students to study abroad examined the three factors on college students willingness to pay construct for a shortterm SAP. Similarly, Fitzsimmons, Flanagan, and Wang (2013) studied the influence of the three general factors of TPB on undergraduates decisions for short- and long-term SAPs. Their findings suggest that students primarily consider social pressure and individual attitudes in their SAP decisions, and PBC was only partially supported. While the TPB model advances the SAP research, more research questions arise. For example, these studies focused on the influences of three factors in general, but little is known about the antecedents of each factor. Also, the data were often collected from a single US university. Conceptual framework The objectives of this study are to focus on how undergraduate students individual attitudes and subjective norms from various social groups impact their intent to participate in SAPs. This section provides justification for employing the TRA model as a framework to achieve these objectives. First, the TRA model is a widely applied theory to explain how individuals form personal attitudes, impacted by social influences, and develop their intentions toward an act or behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The TRA model not only appears to predict consumer intentions and behavior quite well, but also provides a relatively simple basis for identifying where and how to influence consumers behavioral changes (Sheppard, Hartwick, & Warshaw, 1988). Second, this study adds affective attitude

7 108 L. C. WANG ET AL. toward SAPs, and the TRA model is able to investigate the effects of both cognitive and affective attitude simultaneously. Third, to explore the antecedents of personal attitude and social norms, the TRA model provides a framework to examine the antecedents of both factors together. Fourth, the TRA model allows for examining the influences of several social groups at the same time (Shimp & Kavas, 1984), with family, friends and professors being the social referent groups in this study. Fifth, as SAPs are considered to be services possessing intangible and inseparable characteristics (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985), the TRA model is able to study students intentions to participate in service-oriented SAPs (Sheppard et al., 1988). Finally, several studies in SAPs have applied the TPB model. This study applied the TRA, not the TPB model. Our research questions focus on the first two factors of TPB, individual attitude and social norms. In the context of SAPs, perceived control beliefs in TPB are referred to as the helpfulness of the study abroad staff at universities (Schnusenberg & de Jong, 2012), which may be subject to administrative support at different universities. Differences in administrative support at the university level are beyond the scope of this research. Research hypotheses The TRA model focuses on attitude behavior relationships which link attitudes, subjective norms, behavioral intentions and behavior in a fixed causal order (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) suggest behavior (B) is considered to be a direct function of behavioral intention, which in turn is a function of attitude (A) and subjective norms. Attitude toward performing the behavior is further deemed to be a summed product ( BiEi) of the individuals beliefs (B i ) and their evaluation of those beliefs (E i ). The subjective perception of norms (SN) is considered to be a summed product ( NB j MC j ) of the individual s normative beliefs (NB j ) that important others think they should or should not perform the behavior, and their motivation to comply with these others (MC j ). Model 1: research hypotheses According to the TRA model, students behavioral intent (BI) to participate in SAPs is determined by their attitude (A) and their subjective norms. Specifically, personal attitude toward participating in SAPs is further deemed to be a summed product ( B i E i ) of the individuals beliefs (B i ) toward studying abroad and corresponding evaluations of those beliefs (E i ). The perception of subjective norms is regarded to be a summed product ( NB j MC j ) of the individual s normative beliefs that important others think they should or should not attend SAPs (NB j ) and their motivation to comply with these others (MC j ). Figure 1 exhibits the conceptual model and the research hypotheses. Attitude toward SAPs is personal attitude, which may determine one s intentions to participate in SAPs. Several studies indicate that undergraduate students favorable attitudes toward SAPs influence their intention to study abroad (Fitzsimmons et al., 2013; Presley et al., 2010; Schnusenberg & de Jong, 2012). Thus, when an individual s attitude is more favorable, a student is more likely to participate in SAPs. A hypothesis is developed as: H1: Students attitudes toward SAPs (A) will be positively related to their intent to participate in SAPs (BI).

8 JOURNAL OF MARKETING FOR HIGHER EDUCATION 109 Figure 1. Model 1: Application of the TRA model on SAP. Subjective norms is regarded as a social factor and refers to one s perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform a behavior. Sociologists suggest that students educational decision-making is shaped and influenced by their unique social contexts or habitus, such as their home and school environments (Coleman, 1988). Higher education researchers have found evidence that parents play important roles in student s educational decision-making process (Perna & Titus, 2005). The current research extends the social context of college students to include family, friends and professors as reference groups because undergraduates are in contact with each of these referent groups during their college years. Consequently, undergraduates might perceive social pressure from all three referent groups to participate or not to participate in SAPs. If students perceive high levels of social pressure (high SN) to participate in SAPs, their intentions may be correspondingly higher. Thus, a hypothesis is formed as: H2: Students perceived subjective norms toward SAPs (SN) will be positively related to their intent to participate in SAPs (BI). The TRA model suggests that attitude toward performing the behavior is further deemed to be a summed product ( B i E i ) of the individuals beliefs (B i ), and their evaluation of those beliefs (E i ). However, a number of marketing researchers have suggested revisions to improve the TRA model. Bagozzi (1981) raises concerns about the assumption of a single dimension to capture expectancy-value attitudinal beliefs and evaluations ( B i E i ) in the TRA model. He suggests using multi-dimensional constructs to configure personal beliefs or normative influences. For instance, in a study of coupon usage, Shimp and Kavas (1984) corroborate Bagozzi s (1981) theory by demonstrating that multi-dimensional

9 110 L. C. WANG ET AL. constructs of personal beliefs and evaluations indeed improve the TRA model significantly. Yet, Shimp and Kavas (1984) do not find multi-dimensional constructs to be superior over a one-dimensional construct for normative beliefs and motivation to comply. Based on these findings, our proposed model suggests employing multi-dimensional constructs for individuals beliefs and evaluations toward SAPs. A one-dimensional construct is indicated for modeling normative influences (NB) and motivation to comply. Table 1 summarizes which individual beliefs and social factors have been examined in the existing literature of SAPs. Despite this body of earlier research, little remains known about the effects of affective beliefs and different social influences on students intent to participate in SAPs. The current research unifies previous research results and suggests a multi-dimensional structure to represent students individual beliefs and evaluations of SAPs. Four dimensions investigated include: (1) time concerns; (2) financial concerns; (3) career development and (4) perceived potential experience of SAPs. In addition, this study examines family, friends and professors as referent groups because undergraduate students are more likely to consult with them when considering study abroad decisions. With regard to individual beliefs (B i ), time concerns have been found repeatedly to exert an influence on individual attitudes toward SAPs (Albers-Miller et al., 1999). Time concerns (B 1 ) relate to the graduation delays or time period required for participating in SAPs (Albers- Miller et al., 1999). Garver and Divine (2007) used conjoint analysis to identify important attributes of SAPs and found that time spent abroad was the important factor when undergraduate students considered choosing SAPs. As a result, students who regard time to graduate (E 1 ) as very important might be concerned about delays in graduating and, therefore, are likely to have reduced positive attitudes toward SAPs (low B 1 E 1 ). H3: Students time concerns combined with their evaluations ( B 1 E 1 ) will be negatively related to their attitude (A) toward SAPs. Financial outlays represent an important factor for college students in forming their attitudes toward SAPs. In Albers-Miller et al. s study (1999), undergraduate students expressed concerns about the cost of participating in SAPs, though many were not aware of financial aid availability. Studies by Garver and Divine (2007) and Sánchez, Fornerino, and Zhang (2006) indicate that cost is an important attribute for SAP participation. Similarly, a study by Sánchez et al. (2006) indicates that the cost of SAPs was considered a barrier to college students. Goel et al. (2010) note that money, cost and availability of financial aid are key financial concerns when college students consider SAPs. Based on these studies, financial concerns (B 2 ) may negatively influence students attitudes toward SAPs. If students perceive the program as too expensive or without the requisite financial aid (B 2 ), they may be less likely to participate in SAPs. If money or the availability of current funds is very important (E 2 ), students may be less likely to form favorable attitudes toward SAPs ( B 2 E 2 ). Thus, H4 is developed as: H4: Students financial concerns combined with their evaluations ( B 2 E 2 ) will be negatively related to their attitude (A) toward SAPs. Previous research has suggested that career prospects are important to undergraduates when considering participating in SAPs (Schnusenberg & de Jong, 2012). For example, Goel et al. (2010) found that if undergraduates believed SAPs were important to career goals, their intentions to participate in SAPs were higher. Schnusenberg & de Jong

10 JOURNAL OF MARKETING FOR HIGHER EDUCATION 111 (2012) suggest students are more willing to pay for SAPs when they believe the studying abroad experience is important for future job prospects. For this study, career development (B 3 ) relates to the career benefits or future job prospects derived from participating in SAPs. When students believe SAPs may provide more benefits or opportunities in their career development (B 3 ), and those students place significant value on their career (E 3 ), then they are more likely to form favorable attitudes toward SAPs ( B 3 E 3 ). H5: Students beliefs of career development combined with their evaluations ( B 3 E 3 ) will be positively related to their attitude (A) toward SAPs. In addition to examining cost, trip time and career benefits as features of SAPs which are involved in individual cognitive attitudes, Schnusenberg & de Jong (2012) suggest considering the importance of affective attitudes. For instance, the hedonic aspect is emotionbased and reflects a person s desire for fun, fantasy, arousal, sensory, stimulation and enjoyment from their consumption experiences (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982). The marketing literature has shown that hedonic experience is a critical factor in the consumer decision process (Babin, Darden, & Griffin, 1994). Schroth and McCormack (2000) examined the personality traits of sensation-seeking and need-for-achievement among college SAP alumni. They found study abroad students had significantly higher scores on experience seeking compared with their college counterparts who did not study abroad. Based on the findings, they suggest college students participating in SAPs are seeking new experiences through the mind and senses by traveling abroad. Similarly, Wright and Larsen (2012) emphasized the value of student participants experience in SAPs. They suggest that creating an extraordinary experience is a critical factor for motivating students to participate in SAPs. Fitzsimmons et al. (2013) found the fun factor as a significant determinant for students to develop positive attitudes toward SAPs. They refer to the fun factor as opportunities for social engagements, adventure and excitement, or opportunities for new social, personal or cultural activities. A recent study by Pope et al. (2014) examined why Generation Y students study abroad. They found Generation Y s desire for individual growth drives their intent to study abroad by providing opportunities for greater independence, unique experiences and cultural encounters. These expressions, such as fun or new experiences, are related to students feelings or emotions toward SAPs, which are regarded as affective components of personal attitude. Taking these suggestions together, we propose to include affective attitude toward SAPs. In this study, the potential experience of SAPs (B 4 ) refers to one s perceived affective or experiential benefits from participating in SAPs. When students perceive higher levels of potential experience associated with SAPs (B 4 ), such as increased global experience, and when they value such experience (E 4 ), these perceptions ( B 4 E 4 ) may result in more favorable attitudes toward SAPs. As a result, hypothesis H6 is developed as follows: H6: Students beliefs of potential experience of SAPs combined with their evaluations ( B 4 E 4 ) will be positively related to their attitude (A) toward SAPs. Normative beliefs are associated with an individual s perception of the importance applied to others expectations for the individual to participate in SAPs. Motivation to comply refers to how important it is for the individual to conform to the expectations of others.

11 112 L. C. WANG ET AL. When students perceive that others, whom they regard as important, have higher expectations for them to participate in SAPs (NB j ), and their motivation to comply (MC j ) with that referent group is high, these perceptions ( NB j MC j ) may influence the social pressure to participate or to not participate. Goel et al. (2010) found that family is an influential social factor in SAP decisions. Undergraduates may perceive their family as expecting them to study abroad (NB 1 ). If the student believes it is very important to comply with family expectations (MC 1 ), then the student is more likely to hold high social norms for participating in SAPs. In addition to family, Presley et al. (2010) also point to other reference groups influencing SAP decisions, including friends and professors. This research considers three referent groups for undergraduate students including family (j = 1), friends (j = 2) and professors (j = 3), as college students are more likely to consult with these referent groups about SAPs. Thus, the three research hypotheses are formed as follows: H7: Students normative beliefs of family s expectations and their motivation to comply ( NB 1 MC 1 ) will be positively related to their subjective norms toward SAPs. H8: Students normative beliefs of friends expectations and their motivation to comply ( NB 2 MC 2 ) will be positively related to their subjective norms toward SAPs. H9: Students normative beliefs of professors expectations and their motivation to comply ( NB 3 MC 3 ) will be positively related to their subjective norms toward SAPs. Model 2: TRA modifications and additional research hypotheses Model 2 addresses the crossover effects concern in the TRA model. Several scholars have addressed the interdependence of attitudinal and normative influences on behavior intentions (Ryan, 1982; Shimp & Kavas, 1984). Ryan (1982) suggests examining crossover effects between attitudinal and normative influences. Shimp and Kavas (1984) studied crossover effects and found the path from personal attitude (A) to perceived subjective norms significant. In the context of SAPs, when students have favorable attitudes toward SAPs, they are more likely to think that their important others are in favor of SAPs as well. Thus, as shown in Figure 2, we suggest H10, which states that personal attitudes may positively influence one s perceived subjective norms: H10: Students attitudes (A) toward SAPs will be positively related to their perceived subjective norms toward SAPs. A number of studies have highlighted the importance of social influences on undergraduate students decisions to participate in SAPs. For example, Presley et al. (2010) found that family expectations have a strong influence on students decisions to study abroad. Similarly, Schnusenberg & de Jong (2012) found a positive relationship between family expectation to attend SAPs and willingness to pay for SAPs. These findings imply that college students may take their important others expectations into consideration when forming their individual attitude toward SAPs. As a result, we suggest additional paths between normative influences of three referent groups and personal attitude. For example, if students think their parents expectations are important, these expectations may be internalized and become the students own beliefs. Three additional research hypotheses are therefore developed and shown in Figure 2.

12 JOURNAL OF MARKETING FOR HIGHER EDUCATION 113 Figure 2. Model 2: Modifications of the TRA model on SAP. H11: Students normative beliefs of family s expectations and their motivation to comply ( NB 1 MC 1 ) will be positively related to their attitude (A) toward SAPs. H12: Students normative beliefs of friends expectations and their motivation to comply ( NB 2 MC 2 ) will be positively related to their attitude (A) toward SAPs. H13: Students normative beliefs of professors expectations and their motivation to comply ( NB 3 MC 3 ) will be positively related to their attitude (A) toward SAPs. Methods The main research objective is to advance our understanding of undergraduates intentions to participate in SAPs. Additionally, the objective is to generalize the results in different higher education settings. Three surveys were undertaken involving data gathered from three universities, two in the USA and one in Taiwan. Study 1 methods: US AACSB-accredited public university Sample and procedure For Study 1, an online survey was designed and administered to 188 undergraduate students enrolled in a business course. The course, which is required for all business majors, was taught at a mid-sized US east coast AACSB-accredited public university. An invitation was sent out to the students who were enrolled in this business course. Once students agreed to participate in this research project, they clicked the online survey link to respond to the questions. The 188 respondents included majors from Accounting (21.8%), Economics & Finance (15.9%), Marketing (19.7%), Management (9.6%), Pre-Business

13 114 L. C. WANG ET AL. (23.4%) and others (5.3%). Female students accounted for 46.8% of the sample and males 53.2%. The sample included 5.9% first-year students, 47.3% second-year students, 39.9% third-year students and 6.9% fourth-year students. As business students account for approximately 20% of the US study abroad students (IIE, Open Doors, 2013 Fast Facts), this sample is considered appropriate in providing insights from business students at public universities or AACSB-accredited schools in the USA. Measurements The selection of questionnaire items in Table 2 was adapted from prior research (Shimp & Kavas, 1984, p. 799) and was revised for the context of evaluating SAP decision. For behavioral intention, respondents were asked to indicate the probability of participating in different SAPs, ranging from 0 (definitely not) to 100 (definitely yes), when presented with different evaluative options: (1) general interest in study abroad during Table 2. Study 1: Measures analysis reliability and confirmatory factor analysis results. Item wording Alpha Loadings Behavioral intention to attend SAPs (BI) What is your probability to study abroad during your undergraduate college years?.919* What is the probability that you would study abroad if the credits will be transferred to your.852* university? What is the probability that you would study abroad if the credits will not be transferred to your.635* university? What is the probability that you would study abroad if the courses were taught by foreign faculty?.752* What is the probability that you would study abroad if the courses were taught by your university s.713* faculty? Attitude toward SAPs (A) Foolish/wise.821* Useless/useful.713* Waste of time/wise use of time.820* Worthless/valuable.766* Bad/good.800* Subjective norm toward SAPs (SN) Foolish/wise 0.718* Useless/useful 0.796* Waste of time/wise use of time 0.748* Worthless/valuable 0.880* Bad/good 0.852* Personal beliefs B i E i B i How would you rate the following statements about studying abroad? E i Please evaluate the consequence of each statement on a four-point scale ranging from not at all important to extremely important Time concern I do not have time to study abroad. (Reversed) Studying abroad would delay my graduation date. (Reversed) Career development Employers think that studying abroad is useful. Studying abroad would help me get a job when I graduate Financial concern I can afford to study abroad. (Reversed) Studying abroad costs too much money. Receiving financial aid is necessary for me to study abroad Potential experience of SAPs Studying abroad will help me to gain a new perspective on the world. Studying abroad would be a good experience. Studying abroad will be fun Model fit: X331 2 = ; p =.00; TLI = 0.895; CFI = 0.908; RMSEA = *Significant at the.01 level *.515*.852*.804*.816*.813*.665*.751*.834*.739*

14 JOURNAL OF MARKETING FOR HIGHER EDUCATION 115 undergraduate college years, (2) study abroad if credits would be transferred, (3) study abroad if credits would not be transferred, (4) study abroad if courses were taught by foreign faculty, (5) study abroad if courses were taught by the home university s faculty and (6) study abroad for a graduate degree. Attitude toward SAPs (A) was adapted from Shimp and Kavas study (1984). There were five questions utilizing five-point semantic differential scales, which included what do you think about studying abroad: foolish/wise, useless/useful, worthless/valuable, waste of time/wise use of time and bad/good. The questions for subjective norm (SN) were also adapted from Shimp and Kavas (1984). These questions also utilized five-point semantic differential scales and included most people who are important to me probably consider my studying abroad to be: foolish/wise, useless/useful, worthless/valuable, waste of time/ wise use of time and bad/good. Measures for personal beliefs and normative beliefs were also adapted from Shimp and Kavas s study (1984, p. 799). Personal beliefs (B i ) were measured by 10 items on 7-point Likert scales ( strongly disagree vs. strongly agree ). Evaluations (E i ) refers to the assessment of personal beliefs, and was measured by asking students to assess the consequences of each belief item (total of 10 items) on a four-point scale ranging from Not at all important (1) to Extremely important (4). B i E i is a summed product of each belief (B i ) and its evaluation (E i ). As a result, there were 10 items, which were then categorized into four dimensions. The four dimensions include: time concerns, financial concerns, career development and potential experience of SAPs. There were three questions associated with assessing normative influence (NB j ). Respondents were asked to indicate their normative beliefs with regard to each of three referent groups. These referents included family, friends and professors. Respondents were asked how likely it is that the following groups think you should study abroad? A seven-point scale was provided with responses ranging from very unlikely (1) to very likely (7). Motivation to comply (MC j ) was measured with questions such as rate the importance of each group s opinion to you on a four-point scale, ranging from not at all important (1) to extremely important (4). Normative influence ( NB j MC j ) is the summed product of the individual s beliefs that others important to them think they should or should not participate in SAPs (NB j ) and their motivation to comply with these others (MC j ). Study 1: analysis and results Measurement model IBM SPSS Statistics 20 software was used to analyze the data. Cronbach s alpha coefficient of internal consistency was used to assess reliability. Except for the time construct with an alpha of 0.646, each construct was found to have values of 0.70 or higher, thus indicating good reliability (Nunnaly, 1978). Further, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to assess the validity of all the measures (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). Similar to Shimp and Kavas s study (1984), each of NB j MC j normative influence had single indicators with coefficients and errors that were fixed at 1.00 and 0, respectively. The CFA results indicated a satisfactory model fit (X331 2 = ; p =.00; TLI = 0.895; CFI = 0.908; RMSEA = 0.064) (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). Each item was significantly loaded to its postulated construct at the level of.01. Exhibited in Table 3, except

15 116 L. C. WANG ET AL. Table 3. Study 1: Convergent and discriminant validity analysis. Construct CR AVE MSV ASV (1) BI (2) Time (3) Career (4) Money (5) Experience (6) Attitude (7) SN a Reliability: CR > 0.7; Convergent Validity: CR > (AVE), AVE > 0.5. b Discriminant validity: MSV < AVE, ASV < AVE. c Correlations between other constructs. for the time construct, the convergent validity of other constructs was considered appropriate based on the coefficient alpha, composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) values (Hair et al., 2010). None of the confidence intervals around the correlation estimate between two factors included Maximum Shared Squared Variance (MSV) and Average Shared Squared Variance (ASV) results revealed appropriate discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2010). The time construct has the CR of and AVE of 0.491, which were close to their threshold values of 0.7 and 0.50, respectively. In sum, except for the time construct, the measurement model was deemed as adequate for further structural modeling analysis. Structural Model 1: research hypotheses analysis To test the research hypotheses in Model 1, a structural modeling analysis was performed by using AMOS 20 software. As shown in Table 4, the indices of model fit for Model 1 reveal a moderate model (X = ; p =.00; X2 /df = 2.029; TLI = 0.858; CFI = 0.873; RMSEA = 0.074) (Hair et al., 2010). The squared multiple correlation of behavioral intention was 0.302, while attitude was and social norm was Table 4 also shows that the results support H1, suggesting individual attitudes are positively related to the intention to participate in SAPs. However, the results do not support H2. Among the four constructs of personal beliefs, time concerns (H3), career development (H5) and potential experience of SAPs (H6) were found significant, while financial concerns (H4) was not supported. With regard to normative influences from the three referent groups, the results indicate that family (H7) and friends (H8) have a significant influence on the subjective norms of undergraduate students, while professors (H9) do not. Structural model 2: research hypotheses analysis Table 4 reveals the statistical results of Model 2. The fit indices of Model 2 show improvements (X = ; p =.00; X2 /df = 1.816; TLI = 0.888; CFI = 0.900; RMSEA = 0.066) compared to Model 1 (ΔX 2 = 79.65, Δdf = 4, p <.000) (Hair et al., 2010). The squared multiple correlation of behavioral intention was 0.282, while attitude was and social norm was With regard to the additional research hypotheses, the positive relationship between individual attitude and subjective norms was found to be significant (H10). Also, the normative influence of family is significantly related to personal attitude (H11), while friends (H12) and professors (H13) are not. However, the normative influences of

16 JOURNAL OF MARKETING FOR HIGHER EDUCATION 117 Table 4. Study 1: Summary of research hypotheses. Research hypothesis Model 1 coefficient Model 2 coefficient H1: A BI.55**.61** H2: SN BI H3: Time concern A.40**.41** H4: Financial concern A H5: Career development A.34**.30** H6: Potential experience of SAPs A.66**.63** H7: Normative influence of family SN.23**.03 H8: Normative influence of friends SN.20*.12 H9: Normative influence of professors SN H10: A SN.61** H11: Normative influence of family A.16* H12: Normative influence of friends A.00 H13: Normative influence of professor A.05 Model Fit X340 2 = ; p =.00; X336 2 = ; p =.00; TLI = 0.89; TLI = 0.86; CFI = 0.87; RMSEA = CFI = 0.90; RMSEA = **Significant at the.01 level. *Significant at the.05 level. the three referent groups were not significantly related to subjective norms (H7 H9). The results for the remaining research hypotheses were similar to those in the Model 1. Study 1: discussion Table 4 shows the path coefficients of the research hypotheses in Model 1.The path indicates that an individual s attitudes toward studying abroad had a strong positive influence on undergraduates intentions to attend SAPs (H1; 0.55, p <.000). The finding implies the critical role of individual attitudes toward SAPs, including both cognitive and affective attitudes. Surprisingly, subjective norms were not significantly related to behavior intentions (H2, p <.441). The reason may be related to the value which the US culture places on individualism (The Hofstede Centre, 2015), which may mean that individual attitudes might be more influential than social norms on undergraduates decisions to study abroad. With regard to the four individual beliefs, three were found to be significantly related to individual attitudes toward SAPs. The strongest influence was the individual s perceived potential experience of SAPs (H6; 0.66; p <.000). The results suggest that college students are more likely to participate in SAPs if they believe the experience will help them gain world perspectives and be rewarding or enjoyable. Another positive influence was derived from their perspective of career development. Undergraduate students believe and evaluate that SAPs might make them more marketable for employment (H5; 0.34, p <.000). Time concerns, on the other hand, had a high negative influence on personal attitude toward SAPs (H3; 0.40, p <.000). An interesting finding was that financial concerns were not a significant determination of personal attitude toward SAPs (H4; 0.06, p <.391). Previous research has mixed results regarding the relationship between income and intent to study abroad (Stroud, 2010). More research is needed on this issue. Normative influences also reveal interesting findings. Family was found to be the most influential referent group in forming undergraduate students subjective norms (H7; 0.23, p <.006), followed by friends (H8; 0.20, p <.014). Professors influence was, however, not found to be significant (H9; 0.08, p <.327). The results on the family s role are consistent

17 118 L. C. WANG ET AL. Table 5. Undergraduate students intention to participate in SAPs. Probability to Study Abroad (0 = definitely not; 100 = definitely yes) Study 1 mean SD N = 188 During college year (25.70) If the credits will be transferred (32.37) If the credits will NOT be transferred (18.16) If the courses were taught by foreign faculty (25.20) If the courses were taught by your university s faculty (30.60) That you will study abroad for a graduate degree (26.91) Study 2 mean SD N = (33.58) (31.47) (25.23) (30.49) (31.98) (33.67) Study 3 mean SD N = (24.41) (29.23) N/A (24.61) (30.84) (27.55) with previous research (Goel et al., 2010). Additionally, this study found undergraduates friends to be an important referent group. Table 4 presents results for Model 2 and indicates that personal attitude has a positive influence on subjective norms (H10: 0.61, p <.000), which demonstrates their interdependent relationship as suggested by Ryan (1982). The findings reveal that family influence is positively related to undergraduate students attitudes toward SAPs (H11: 0.16, p <.015). It suggests that influences from family members might be more than just an external influence, because undergraduates might adopt the values of their family as their own. However, the results in Model 2 do not show similar significant support for the influence of friends (H12) or professors (H13). Furthermore, Table 5 exhibits the average probabilities that undergraduate students would participate in SAPs under various options. On average, the likelihood that undergraduate students surveyed would engage in SAPs during their college years is approximately 30%. If the credits for SAPs were transferable, the probability increased significantly to 49%. When the credits could not be transferred, the average possibility of their intentions to participate dropped to 13%. This difference suggests that transferability of credits is a critical factor in SAP participation. Additionally, when SAP courses are taught by their university s faculty, the average likelihood of intent to participate in SAPs increased to 42%, as opposed to only 26% when foreign faculty were considered. This suggests students might feel more comfortable travelling abroad with their own faculty. Study 2 methods US private university To generalize the research hypotheses to other settings in higher education, Study 2 was conducted at a US private university. The results of Study 1 indicate that Model 1 represents a parsimonious model because the additional research hypotheses in Model 2 did not provide an incremental contribution to Model 1. Therefore, Study 2 only tested the research hypotheses of Model 1. Sample, procedure and measurements Using the same research method and the same measures as in Study 1, Study 2 was conducted at a small private Midwestern liberal arts university. An invitation was sent to approximately 95 undergraduate students who are business majors or business-related