Groups. Giovanni Masino - University of Ferrara
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1 Groups 1 S T R U C T U R E A N D I N F L U E N C E
2 Issues Norms and Roles Influence Performance and Decisions Leadership 2
3 Definitions 3
4 a general definition: Definitions a group is a set of two or more people connected by social relations a number of different definitions exist, emphasizing different aspects: 4 stability and roles shared goals type of interdependence identity, cohesion and membership tasks and activities etc.
5 La varietà delle attività 5
6 6
7 Group structure we can define group s structure as: 7 NORMS ROLES RELATIONS
8 Norms the emerging shared standards that regulate the behavior of members 8 EMERGING, because they may form gradually and even in a non deliberate, planned ways SHARED, because a significant part of members must accept them typical features of norms:
9 Prescriptive Characteristics what is legitimate or appropriate to do within the group in relation to a certain activity Proscriptive what is prohibited to do in the group context Descriptive what group members usually do Injuntive what group members should do Some norms are group specific, others are shared by many or all groups 9
10 It may be: Norm formation explicit (through discussion and deliberation) implicit (members gradually adapt their behaviors to implicit standards, of which they may not even be fully aware) Sherif s experiments on norm formation 10 group must decide about the (illusory) movement of a dot of light in the darkness (auto-cinetic effect) individual on average estimate between 1 and 10 inches (avg 3) group estimate (after a few iterations) tends to converge, so every individual will partially adapt his estimate to the others
11 11
12 Internalization Once formed, norms are internalized by subjects and they tend to persist, even independently from the presence of subjects that generated them 12 A variation of Sherif s experiment an accomplice changes significantly the group s norm he argues that the movement of the light is 15 inches (while the normal average estimate is 3) once he is substituted with other subject, the norms persist after a while, the norm goes back to the initial estimate, but it takes about 5-6 member changes to go back completely
13 Persistence Persistence is typical even when norms are clearly wrong or arbitrary This may lead the very negative situations. However even arbitrary norms may play a useful role: give order to interactions increase predictability and decrease uncertainty increase solidarity 13
14 Roles Roles are coherent sets of behaviors that group members (or subjects in a social context) expect from other members similar to roles in a theatrical play or in a movie 14 behaviors are coherent but not completely constrained. They depend nonetheless from the interpretation of the subject. Variations are tolerated, provided that they are not too different from expectations Roles, like norms, may emerge spontaneously or may be defined explicitly Examples of typical roles:
15 15
16 16
17 Role differentiation Often «task roles» and «relationship roles» emerge differentation increase with time, especially when conflicts within the group emerge Why? because such roles respond to different needs, often contradictory, and it s difficult for the same person to play both roles at the same time task roles require to «give orders», criticize, reduce other s discretion etc. 17 this may lead to negative emotional reactions, so individuals need to have emotional and social support
18 Socialization role socialization is a two way process, which usually happens in stages Moreland and Levine: Entry, Acceptance, Divergence, Exit in the «entry» phase norms and expected behaviors are assimilated in other phases «negotiation» between member and group about roles may happen The current stage may influence the behavior 18 for example, «newcomers» behave in a systematically different way from older (already socialized) members
19 role ambiguity role expectations are not clear role conflict Role stress when a member have to perform more than one roles that are not compatible with each other when expected activities within the role are not compatible when group expectations diverge from the subject s behavior when role imples activities that are incompatibile with the needs, values, personality of the member (low «role fit») All these element are negatively correlated with psycophysical well-being, with organizational identification and commitment 19
20 Relation: the SNA approach Social Network Analysis is a method for studying the structure of social relations in a group Structure is analyzed through graphs and indexes describing / measuring some key features 20 features of the group / network as a whole features of individual members positions within the network
21 Density Network s features number of existing relations / number of possible relations a N. with high density provides many relation and exchange opportunities to its members Centralization how «central» is its most central «node» (actor) in relation to how central are other nodes a very centralized N. is characterized by a higher polarization between a few actors and all others a N. with low centralization has more equilirbium between members in terms of centralization 21
22 degree Indexes number of direct connections of a node with others interpretation example: the capacity of one actor to relate directly with many others (to influence them directly) difference between indegree and outdegree closeness avg. distance between one node from all others interpretation example: how much time is necessary for information to flow from one node to the rest of the network it takes into account indirect, remote connections betweeness number of times a certain node acts as a «bridge» along the minimum path connecting other actors is the index increases, it is more likely that information goes through that node (a sorto «mediation» potential capacity it takes into account indirect, remote connections 22
23 betweeness closeness degree centrality indexes measure very different properties of each node 23
24 groups and sub-groups (cliques) SNA may identify the presence of sub-groups (cliques) sets of nodes much more connected with each other than with the rest of the group «Cross-Clique Centrality» measures how each node is in conncetion with different cliques 24
25 25
26 Influence 26
27 Influence It s a fundamental process to understand group dynamics majority influence (from group towards individuals), or viceversa majority influence increases homogeneity and consensus minority influence increase variety and change 27
28 Majority influence: Asch 28
29 Without group unanimity Asch: variations conformity decrease to a fourth from previous levels Without group unanimity, but wrong answer conformity decrease, but people do not conform to the error; it becomes easier to dissent if the accomplice changes his mind and goes back to be part of the majority, then dissenting members do the same Relative size of majority and minority matters it is easier to dissent when minority is numerous 29 however, the relationship is not linear
30 Conformity and majority size 30
31 Conformity and size majority Strength of majority size also depends on some contextual elements If the dissenting subject is convinced that majority members generated their judgment together (not independently) then strength of size decreases (actually, when majority size increases, conformity does not increases, or very little) on the contrary if the dissenting subject is convinced that majority members bring independt judgments 31
32 Social Impact Theory (B. Latane) A generalization: majority influence on minority depends on: 32 Strength, Immediacy, Numerosity «Strength» has to to with the relation between subject and majority e.g., if the dissenting subject is new in relation to the rest of the group, or if he is not an expert «Immediacy» has to do with the physical proximity of subjects influence of absent people judgment is creatly reduced «Numerosity» has to to do with the relative numbers of majority and minority
33 Types of social response 33
34 Individual characteristics: examples Individual characteristics are correlated with conformity or independence AGE: conformity is high in teenage years, the gradually decreases INTROVERSION: increase conformity AUTHORITY: people more sensitive to authority conform more SELF-ESTEEM: less self-esteem, more conformity (but the opposite is true in teenagers) GENDER: women seem to have a slightly higher tendency to conformity, but only in certain situations 34 in face to face groups, with public opinions it probably depends on implict acceptance on gender stereotypes: women that do not accept such stereotypes do not show more conformity!
35 The relevance of context Some context elements may increase or decrease conformity General context: INDIVIDUALISTIC vs COLLECTIVISTIC CULTURE individualistic culture decreases conformity Asch experiments (held in the USA) show even higher levels of conformity in collectivistic cultures TIME PERIOD 35 conformity seems to be decreasing over time since the original Asch experiments (50s), but only slightly other context elements:
36 36
37 Relevance of context, in general Groups that are: cohesive, larger, with larger majorities, individuals with high commitment to the group, more complex tasks generate more conformity Groups where opinions are public generate more conformity 37 however, in online groups, a high level of conformity is observed. Probably because the «depersonalization» of technology mediated relations pushes people to identify themselves more with the group, becuase the group gives them back some sense of identity
38 Minority influence Minority can also influence majorities through a validation process in case of majority influence, the process is mostly about COMPLIANCE: people conform not because they are convinced by the majority, but for the social benefits of conformity but, when a minority expresses its voice, members have to evaluate with more attention the merit of their opinions, exactly because it comes from a minority. The change of opinion then becomes «deeper»: it s a process we can call «CONVERSION» Moscovici experiments, similar to Asch, but opposite: accomplices express wrong, minority opinions control group mistakes: 0.25% mistakes of groups with minority influence: 8.4% 38
39 Factors increasing minority influence Coherence and persistence 39 experiment with non persistent minorities: 1.2% however, minority position has to appeare reasonable, and supported by good, solid arguments To show confidence and competence To appear as members who care about group s cohesiveness and its norms, and avoid creating conflicts To give small concessions to the majority The minority credibility (which may depend, for example, to the minority conformity on certain aspects) In general, minority members tend to put more effort and attention to arguments they propose (because they are minority so they realize they will have to be more convincing in order to convert others)
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