Visual Selection and Object Perception

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1 Visual Selection and Object Perception Dima Amso Sackler Institute for Developmental Psychobiology, WMC Cornell University 1300 York Ave. Box 140 New York, NY Abstract - We examined the relation between the emergence of visual selection mechanisms and object perception in infancy. Twenty-two 3-month-old infants participated in both a perceptual completion and a visual search task. In the perceptual completion task, infants were habituated to a partly occluded moving rod and subsequently viewed unoccluded broken and complete rod test stimuli. We presented the same infants with visual search displays in which single targets of varying levels of salience were cast among homogeneous static vertical distracters. Infants who provided evidence of a functional visual selective attention mechanism in the search task were the same infants whose posthabituation preference indicated unity perception in the completion task. Index Terms - Visual Attention, Infancy, Object Perception, Oculomotor Control. I. INTRODUCTION Infants repertoire of information gathering behaviors includes shifts of eye gaze, manual exploration, crawling, reaching, sucking, and listening. The emergence of these skills offers infants novel exploratory strategies [1, 2] that, when coupled with frequent repeated environmental exposure, may result in learning and long-term retention of information. Here, we asked whether efficiency of visual exploration, as indexed by developments in oculomotor control, relates to the development of perceptual completion in infancy. Significant developments in oculomotor control, and organization of the underlying neural circuitry, take place during the first several postnatal months [3]. Eye movements in the first several months after birth often appear to be relatively more reflexive than deliberate, driven by salient external information. At 3-4 months of age, infants exhibit more voluntary or endogenous oculomotor control and inhibition of reflexive eye movements, indicating emergence of visual selective attention. Visual selective attention supports the selection of certain stimuli for further processing while simultaneously ignoring or suppressing competing stimuli. The developmental consequences of this change from reflexive to controlled orienting are profound. The visual environment is cluttered with many objects of varying colors and shapes. Some of these objects emit sounds and others move at varying speeds. The most salient environmental features, perhaps the largest, fastest, or brightest items tend to also carry the most information [4]. Without the ability to suppress responses to other competing display elements, attending on any single item long enough to extract relevant information may be difficult. Visual selective attention, Scott P. Johnson Department of Psychology, New York University 6 Washington Place New York, NY scott.johnson@nyu.edu therefore, is an important candidate skill in controlled visual exploration [5]. Perceptual completion, the ability to represent an object or its parts in the absence of visual input, is known to develop during the first several postnatal months [6]. In a standard object unity task [7], infants habituate to a moving rod that is partially occluded by a box. They are then shown two test displays in alternation. The complete rod test display consists of a single rod surface while the broken rod display consists of two disjoint rod surfaces. Both are otherwise identical to the visible portions of the rod in the habituation stimulus (see Figure 1). A posthabituation preference for the broken rod is taken to suggest perception of the unity of the rod parts during habituation. The motion of the rod parts, as well as their spatial alignment, are known to be informative with respect to completion [6, 7]. However, the precise mechanisms that drive the effective processing of these informative regions by 4, but not 2 month-old infants [6, 8], remain unclear. Recently, [9] recorded eye movements in a group of 3 montholds during the habituation portion of the object unity task. We found that infants who explored the most salient display regions more effectively, the rod parts and their motion, were also those whose posthabituation preference indicated unity perception (termed perceivers). Non-perceivers, however, tended to be less organized in their orienting, focussing more on the display background or the occluder. The bright blue occluder in these displays is substantially larger than the rod, as is the textured background (see Figure 1). However, attending to either of these regions may not provide infants with the information necessary to perceive unity. Motion against a static background is salient to both infants and adults [10, 11, 12]. Gathering the information pertinent to the perception of unity requires a mechanism that suppresses, rather than reflexively attends to, these competing display elements. In the present experiment we used a visual search task to examine whether changes in oculomotor control, from reflexive orienting to a controlled visual selection mechanism, Fig. 1 Habituation (A) and test (B&C) object unity displays.

2 relate to differences in perceptual completion in a group of 3- month-old infants. Visual search tasks have been devised by Triesman and colleagues [13, 14, 15]. In a visual search paradigm, a unique target is embedded in an array of distracters. For example, [16] presented an oblique target among vertically oriented distracters. The oblique target popped out, i.e., was detected rapidly and reflexively. When observers report that the target item does not pop out, search is considered to involve visual selective attention. Search performance is not necessarily dichotomous (reflexive versus visual selective attention) but may be best characterized as changing along a continuum of target/distracter similarity. For example, reaction times (RTs) may be very rapid to detect a target that is highly salient and captures attention reflexively, and may become increasingly slower as target/background similarity heightens the difficulty of target detection and requires efficient selective attention [4, 17]. Slowing of RTs provides an index of sensitivity to the competing display elements that must then be suppressed for the target to be selected. Our visual search paradigm was designed to engage both visual selective attention and reflexive orienting to salient stimuli, in two conditions. The competition condition consisted of a field of static homogeneous vertical bars with a single target bar, tilted from the vertical, at one of three possible orientations (see Figure 2). The control condition was identical to the competition condition, except the target was vertically oriented and translated laterally at one of three possible speeds. We reasoned that performance in the competition condition would require visual selective attention as indexed by increased latency for target selection, whereas the control condition would require simple reflexive orienting. Motion on a static background is salient [12], while detection of oriented targets has been shown to be more difficult for young infants [18,19]. As noted previously, as target/distracter similarity increases, so does latency to select the target. Infants who use selective attention to visually explore should be affected by this increase in target/distracter similarity in the competition condition by showing the increases in response latency and target selection, relative to those who rely on reflexive orienting. We tested the same group of 3-month-old infants, reasoned to be at a transitional age between reflexive and controlled visual orienting as well as on the cusp of efficient perceptual completion, on two tasks. The visual search task is designed to tap sensitivity to competition between attractive display elements. The object unity task is included to test the prediction that changes in oculomotor control are an agent of change in infants object perception. The logic guiding this research is that the emergence of visual selective attention (i.e., controlled orienting) will influence performance on both the visual search and object unity tasks. In particular, we predicted that infants who visually explore the world in a relatively controlled manner, as indexed by performance on the visual search task, would also be more likely to perceive the occluded rod as a solid, partially-visible object. 30 Target Display 60 Target Display 90 Target Display Fig. 2 Three possible target orientations in the visual search competition condition. II. METHODS Participants The final sample included 22 3-month-old infants (M age = 96.3 days, SD = 7 days; 13 girls). Thirty infants were observed but excluded from the sample due to fussiness (5 infants) or sleepiness (2 infants), completion of only one of the two tasks (10 infants), poor calibration of the point of gaze (POG) resulting in uninterpretable eye movement data (3 infants), or program and experimenter error (11 infants). General Eye Tracking Procedure Infants sat on a parent s lab approximately 120 cm from a 76 cm monitor used to present the stimuli. A remote-optics corneal reflection eye tracker (Applied Science Laboratories model 504) recorded eye movements during stimulus presentation. Each infant s POG was calibrated using a twopoint calibration routine, followed by several presentations of the calibration stimulus at random screen locations. If the POG was more than 0.5 from the center of the stimulus (minimum of 6 locations), the calibration procedure was repeated. Data consisted of the POG superimposed on the stimuli and were recorded onto digital videotape for subsequent offline coding. Task order was counterbalanced across subjects with half the sample participating in the object unity paradigm first.

3 Object Unity Apparatus & Procedure The habituation display (see Figure 1A) consisted of a 36.5 x 10.4 cm blue box (17.3 x 5.0 visual angle) and a 2.3 x 26.2 cm green rod (1.1 x 12.5 ). These objects were presented against a black background with a 12 x 20 grid of white dots (43.8 x 30.2 cm, 20.7 x 14.3 ). The rod continuously translated laterally through 17.7 cm (8.4, 5 s). The complete rod test display (see Figure 1B) was identical to the habituation display except that there was no box and the rod parts were connected. The broken rod test display (see Figure 1C) was also identical to the habituation display but there was a gap between the rod parts in place of the occluder. Each trial began with an attention-attracting stimulus used to draw infants attention to the screen, followed by a display. The end of a habituation trial was marked either when the infant looked away for 2 s or when 60 s had elapsed. Habituation was considered complete when the looking times declined across four continuous trials that summed to less than half the total during the first four trials. The minimum number of habituation trials was five and the maximum was 12. Test displays were presented three times each in alternation. Test order (complete or broken rod first) was counterbalanced across subjects. Visual Search Apparatus & Procedure Test displays consisted of a total of 28 red vertical bars (1.9 x 7.0 cm each,.9 x 3.3 ) and one target bar on a black background (see Figure 2). The bars were arranged pseudorandomly on each trial. The display was divided into 14 invisible columns (5.5 cm, 2.6 wide). Two distracter rods were arranged vertically per column, with the condition that the two rods did not overlap. Target rods varied along two dimensions, orientation and motion, and could appear in one of 8 possible locations around the center. Targets were either oriented at 30, 60, or 90 from vertical (competition condition) or translated laterally through 6.5 cm (3.1 degrees) at speeds of 1 Hz, 1.5 Hz, or 2 Hz (control condition). All six target conditions (30, 60, 90, 1 Hz, 1.5 Hz, 2 Hz) appeared at each of the eight possible locations, resulting in a total of 48 trials, presented in random order for each infant. The experiment began with an attention-attracting stimulus used to center the POG, ensuring that the POG was in the same location at the beginning of each trial. A trial ended either when infants fixated the target stimulus, or when 4 s had elapsed. Data consisted of both the time in milliseconds to begin an eye movement toward the target stimulus (saccade latency) and the number of targets detected as a proportion of the total number of useable trials (selection proportion). (The probability of selecting the target by chance was 12.5% (1 of 8 possible locations). III. RESULTS Object Unity Data consisted of looking times (in s) during posthabituation test trials. For each infant, a preference for the broken rod test display, relative to the complete rod, was interpreted as evidence for perceptual completion in the habituation display. Preference was calculated as looking time at the broken rod divided by total looking time (at both test displays). Across the sample, there was no consistent preference for either test stimulus (M preference for broken = 53.6%, SD = 14.4). There were no reliable differences in test display preference as a function of sex, total time to habituate, total looking time during test, or order of test display presentations. Infants whose posthabituation preference was greater than the mean (M age = 95.1 days, SD = 6.7, whom, as in [9], we termed perceivers) preferred the broken rod (11 infants, M preference for broken = 65.2%, SD = 8.5), t(10) = 3.03, p <.05. The perceivers recovered interest, or dishabituated, to the first broken rod test display, t(10) = 3.47, p <.001, but not to the first complete rod display, t(10) = 1.97, ns. Infants whose preference was less than the mean (M age = 97.6 days, SD = 7.4, whom we termed non-perceivers) looked longer at the complete rod overall (M preference for broken = 42.0%, SD = 8.5), t(10) = 2.70, p <.05), but did not dishabituate to either test display, ts(10) <.5, ns. Visual Search The competition condition, relative to the control, was associated with longer saccade latencies t(21) = 3.67, p <.01, and a lower proportion selected, t(21) = 8.92, p < This confirms that the moving targets in the control condition were more easily detected due to their salience on a static background. The oriented targets, in contrast, may have induced relatively greater competition with the background. This is consistent with previous work in infants [12, 20] and in adults [4, 17] showing that decreasing the difference between the target and distracters along some dimension invokes a selection cost, and implies involvement of visual selective attention. There was no difference in the total number of trials that yielded data for perceivers versus non-perceivers, t(20) =.075, ns. A 2 (group) x 3 (orientation) mixed ANOVA on latency data in the competition condition revealed only a significant main effect of group, F(1, 20) = 8.06, p <.05. Perceivers had longer latencies to find the target in the competition condition, but not control condition (see Figure 3). A 2 (group) x 3 (motion: 1 Hz, 1.5 Hz, or 2 Hz) mixed ANOVA on data from the control condition revealed no reliable effects. Perceivers detected the target more often than would be predicted by chance in both conditions [Competition, t(10) = , p <.001; Control, t(10) = , p <.001] and nonperceivers [Competition, t(10) = , p <.001; Control, t(10) = , p <.001]. A 2 (group: preference for broken vs. preference for complete) x 3 (orientation: 30, 60, or 90 target) mixed ANOVA on data from the competition condition yielded only a significant main effect of group, F(1, 20) = 4.42, p <.05. A similar analysis on data in the control condition resulted in no reliable effects. Perceivers selected targets in the competition condition more frequently than did non-perceivers (see Figure 3), but performance did not differ between groups in the control condition.

4 * Fig. 3 Saccade latency and selection proportion for perceivers and non-perceivers in the competition and control conditions. IV. DISCUSSION Infants who provided evidence of perceptual completion also showed visual selective attention in a search task. The search task competition condition elicited more target/distracter similarity than the motion-defined control condition. Relative to non-perceivers, perceivers had longer saccade latencies and selected a higher proportion of targets in the competition, but not the control condition. These findings suggest that, during visual exploration, perceivers target scans and fixations in a manner more consistent with visual selective attention, i.e., via the suppression of competing information. By implication, the same infants may be able to resolve the competition between the competing habituation display elements in the object unity task. This targeted online information gathering may yield the adultlike percept of unity via access to motion and spatial alignment information available in the display. An alternative explanation for the observed differences between groups is that perceivers came into the task with perceptual completion intact and produced targeted scans and fixations appropriately. However, this explanation cannot account for the differences on the independent visual search task. Other pieces of evidence also support the relation between controlled visual selection and object perception. First, developments in oculomotor control occur in parallel with changes in perceptual completion skills in infancy. The ability to disengage one point of regard to engage another develops in the period between 2 and 4 months [21]. Early exogenously-driven oculomotor control is thought to rely on subcortical circuitry [22, 23]. Endogenous oculomotor control accompanies the development of cortical regions including the frontal eye fields for the endogenous control of eye movements, the parietal cortex in covert shifts of attention, and the prefrontal cortex in endogenous control involving delays [24]. The differences in search performance between perceivers and non-perceivers may be associated with different stages in the development of visual pathways underlying oculomotor control. A second piece of evidence for this interpretation comes from past literature on young infants perceptual completion. In displays in which the visible rod parts are made especially salient (e.g., by narrowing the width of the occluder) unity perception has been observed in infants as young as 2 months of age [6, 8]. Presumably, the relative salience of other display elements is decreased in this display, reducing the need for visual selective attention to accomplish perceptual completion. Finally, evidence from the locomotor control literature shows a similar developmental pattern in exploration. Motor exploration progresses from early spontaneous wiggles and thrashes to more attentive controlled movements [25]. Infants who engage in active manual exploration are better able to segregate an object into its component parts than infants who engage in less active exploration strategies [26]. These findings are in line with the idea that the acquisition of new motor skills makes available novel exploratory situations, which in turn influence cognitive development [1, 2]. A great deal of research has been conducted on oculomotor development. However, we know very little about how this may be an agent of change in infants ability to perceive the world veridically. The present work lays the foundation for detailed examinations of how developments in visual pathways may be directly associated with more complex skills such as object perception. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Supported by grants from the National Science Foundation, the National Institute for Child Health and Human Development REFERENCES [1] E.J. Gibson, Exploratory behavior in the development of perceiving, acting, and acquiring of knowledge, Annual Review of Psychology,

5 vol 39, pp. 1-41, [2] E.W. Bushnell, and J.P. Boudreau, Motor development and the mind: The potential role of motor abilities as a determinant of aspects of perceptual development, Child Development, vol 64, pp , [3] M.H. Johnson, Cortical maturation and the development of visual attention in infancy, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, vol 2, pp , [4] J.M. Wolfe, Visual search, in Attention, H. Pashler, Ed., Hove, East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press Ltd., 1998, pp [5] D. Amso and S.P. Johnson, Selection and inhibition in infancy: Evidence from the spatial negative priming paradigm, Cognition, vol 95, pp. B27-B36, [6] S.P. Johnson, Development of perceptual completion in infancy, Psychological Science, vol 15, pp , [7] P.J. Kellman and E.S. Spelke, Perception of partly occluded objects in infancy, Cognitive Psychology, vol 15, pp , [8] S.P. Johnson and R.N. Aslin, Perception of object unity in 2-month-old infants, Developmental Psychology, vol 31, pp , [9] S.P. Johnson, J.A. Slemmer, and D. Amso, Where infants look determines how they see: Eye movements and object perception performance in 3-month-olds, Infancy, vol 6, pp , [10] M. Dick, S. Ullman, and D. Sagi, Parallel and serial processes in motion detection, Science, vol 237, pp , [11] P. McLeod, J. Driver, and J. Crisp, Visual search for conjunctions of movement and form is parallel, Nature, vol 332, pp , [12] J.L. Dannemiller, Competition in early exogenous orienting between 7 and 21 weeks, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, vol 76, pp , [13] U. Neisser. Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, [14] A. Treisman, Features and objects: The fourteenth Bartlett memorial lecture, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, vol 40, pp , [15] Treisman and G. Gelade, A feature integration theory of attention, Cognitive Psychology, vol 12, pp , [16] Treisman and S. Gormican, Feature analysis in early vision: Evidence from search asymmetries, Psychological Review, vol 95, pp , [17] J. Duncan and G.W. Humphreys, Visual search and stimulus similarity, Psychological Review, vol 96, pp , [18] Rieth and R. Sireteanu, Texture segmentation and pop-out in infants and children: The effect of test field size, Spatial Vision, vol 8, pp , [19] Rieth and R. Sireteanu, Texture segmentation and visual search based on orientation contrast: An infant study with the familiarization-novelty preference method, Infant Behavior & Development, vol 17, pp , [20] P.C. Quinn and R.S. Bhatt, Visual pop-out in young infants: Convergent evidence and an extension, Infant Behavior and Development, vol 21, pp , [21] J. Atkinson, B. Hood, J. Wattam-Bell, and O. Braddick, Changes in infants ability to switch visual attention in the first three months of life, Perception, vol 21, pp , [22] P.H. Schiller, A model for the generation of visually guided saccadic eye movements, in Models of the visual cortex, D. Rose & V. G. Dobson, Eds., New York: John Wiley, pp , [23] P.H. Schiller, The neural control of visually eye movements, in Cognitive neuroscience of attention: A developmental perspective, J.E. Richards, Ed., Mahwah, New Jersey: Erlbaum, pp. 3-50, [24] M.H. Johnson, Developmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed.), London: Blackwell, [25] K.E. Adolph, M.A. Eppler, L. Marin, I.B. Weise, and M.W. Clearfield, Exploration in the service of prospective control, Infant Behavior and Development, vol 23, pp , [26] A. Needham, Improvements in visual exploration skills may facilitate the development of object segregation in early infancy, Journal of Cognition and Development, vol 1, pp , 2000.

Learning by Selection: Visual Search and Object Perception in Young Infants

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