Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Depression- Proneness: Closing the Gender Gap 1,2

Transcription

1 Sex Roles, Vol. 18, Nos. 7/8, 1988 Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Depression- Proneness: Closing the Gender Gap 1,2 Marci McCaulay 3 Denison University Laurie Mintz 3 Ohio State University Audrey A. Glenn 3 Southern Illinois University Gender differences in body image and related correlates have received increasing attention in recent psychological research. The purposes of the present study were to further examine gender differences in body image and its relationship to depression-proneness and self-esteem. The Body Cathexis Scale, the Depression-Proneness Inventory, the Janis-Field Feelings o finadequacy Scale, and a background questionnaire were administered to 176 female and male undergraduates at a small Midwestern college. Responses were analyzed by gender and by participants'perceived and actual weight. Findings were consistent with sociocultural messages, and showed a pervasive preoccupation with weight and appearance for both men and women. The importance of considering weight, environment, and other demographic data when studying body image is discussed. Body image and its correlates have been receiving increasing attention in recent years both the sociological and psychological literature. Disturbances in body image have been linked to eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia (Bruch, 1980; Garner & Garfinkel, 1980). Furthermore, distor- ~All authors contributed equally. Authorship order was determined by coin toss. 2We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Laurie Phillips in the data collection for this study. 3All three authors have relocated to the following affiliations: Marci McCaulay, Granville, Ohio; Laurie Mintz, University of Southern California; Audrey A. Glenn, St. Joseph Hospital, Tacoma, Washington /88/ / Plenum Pubhshing Corporation

2 382 McCaulay, Mintz, and Glenn tions in body image have been reported in a number of nonclinical samples of women and men (Cash, Winstead, & Janda, 1986; Miller, Coffman, & Linke, 1980; Mintz & Betz, 1986). Not only are distortions in body image prevalent in nonclinical samples, but these distortions have been linked to a variety of problems including lowered self-esteem (Cash et al., 1986; Lerner, Karabenick, & Stuart, 1973; Mintz & Betz, 1986; Rosen & Ross, 1968; Weinberg, 1960), depression (Marsella, Shizuru, Brenan, & Kameoka, 1981; Mintz & Betz, 1986; Noles, Cash, & Winstead, 1985), and chronic dieting (Miller et al., 1980). Preoccupation with dieting, weight, and body image is assumed to afflict mainly women in American culture. It is females in our culture who are particularly valued for thinness and beauty. According to Cherin (1981), it is women in this culture who are alienated from and who dislike their bodies; it is the females who suffer for anorexia, bulimia, and an obsessive concern with weight and dieting. Further, cultural standards for women have been getting thinner over the past several years (Garner & Garfinkel, 1980), and this unrealistic model for female beauty is often implicated in body image disturbances in women (Chernin, 1981). A number of recent studies report that women tend to see themselves as heavier than their actual weight and to dislike their bodies. Miller et al. (1980) found that while only 3907o of the women that they surveyed could be classified as slightly overweight or overweight, 70% of these women perceived themselves to be so. Similarly, the majority of the women studied by Mintz and Betz (1986) perceived themselves to be heavier than their actual weight: 64% of normal-weight women thought of themselves as slightly overweight; 61% of the slightly underweight women perceived themselves to be of normal weight. Furthermore, two recent large-scale surveys conducted by major magazines report similar trends (Cash et al., 1986). While body image distortion is assumed to afflict mainly women, two recent studies report a tendency for men to perceive themselves as too thin. This may be in response to the large and muscular cultural male ideal. Twenty percent of the men in the Miller et al. (1980) study inaccurately perceived themselves to be slightly underweight. Similarly, Mintz and Betz (1986) found that while college men were generally more satisfied with their bodies than college women, they did tend to want to gain weight and to perceive themselves as lighter than their actual weight. Slightly underweight men were also the only group of men who disliked their bodies more than did similar weight category women (Mintz & Betz, 1986). In addition to assessing sex differences in body image, some recent studies have assessed sex differences in the relationship of body image to other correlates such as self-esteem and proneness to depression. Mintz and

3 Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Depression-Proneness 383 Betz (1986) found that for both women and men, satisfaction with one's body was positively correlated with social self-esteem and negatively correlated with depression-proneness. While there were no sex differences in the relationship between body image and depression, the relationship between body image and self-esteem was significantly stronger for women than for men in both the overall sample and slightly underweight participants. However, there were no sex differences in this relationship among the normal-weight participants. Lerner et al. (1973) and Thompson (1986) also reported stronger relationships between body image and global self-esteem for women than for men, although weight categories were not taken into account. While body distortion among women, and perhaps among men as well, is quite prevalent in American culture, the question remains if, within some environments, body distortion and its relationship to self-esteem and depression-proneness might be more significant. Clinical experiences of the authors led to the hypothesis that one such environment might be a small, private, undergraduate college where the pressure to adhere to the sociocultural norms of weight and body type is often intensified for both women and men. While the Mintz and Betz (1986) study utilized subjects from a large heterogeneous university, the present investigation studied women and men from a small, private liberal arts college. The purpose of this study were (a) to examine sex differences in body image, (b) to further examine sex and weight category differences in the relationship between body image and depression-proneness, and (c) to further examine previously found sex and weight category differences in the relationship between body image and self-esteem. METHOD Subjects The subjects were 176 undergraduates, 103 females and 73 males, who were enrolled in introductory psychology courses at a small, private undergraduate liberal arts college in the Midwest. The majority of students enrolled at this institution represent upper-class socioeconomic levels: 40% attended preparatory school prior to attending college. The college is known for the physical attractiveness of its campus. Likewise, students place a strong emphasis on the importance of physical attractiveness and its impact on social acceptance. One hundred of the subjects were first-year students, 60 were sophomores, 10 were juniors, and 6 were seniors. Subjects received research credit for their participation.

4 384 McCaulay, Mintz, and Glenn Materials and Procedure Subjects were administered a nine-page questionnaire consisting of three scales and a background information sheet. The three scales measured body satisfaction, proneness to depression, and social self-esteem. The order in which the scales were administered was systematically varied and the background information sheet was always compared last. Body Cathexis Scale (BCS). The original BCS (Jourard & Secord, 1955) consists of a list of 12 body parts; height, weight, breasts and chest, waist, hips thighs, calves, ankles, feet, nose length, should width, and neck length. Four additional body parts (arms, face, body build, and abdomen) were added to the original scales for the present study in order to more adequately represent the whole body. Feelings about each body part were rated on a 7-point scale ranging from strong positive feeling (1) to strong negative feeling (7). The score for the BCS represented the average for the subject's responses on the 16 items. Split-half reliability coefficients for the scale were reported at.78 for males and.83 for females (Jourard & Secord, 1955). Test-retest reliability over a two-week period was high (r =.87), suggesting that the scale is stable over time. Depression-Proneness Inventory (DPI). The DPI (Abramson & Metalski, 1983) was developed to measure proneness to future depression. The DPI consists of 10 questions regarding feelings of depression and general reactions to life stress. Illustrative items include "On the average, how often do you feel very depressed, sad, blue, or down in the dumps?" and "On the whole, would you rate yourself as a person who is vulnerable (susceptible) or invulnerable (resistant) to depression?" Responses were obtained on a 7-point scale ranging from very often (1) to practically never (7). Total scores are calculated by summing the individual item scores and dividing by 10. The depression-proneness total score could thus range from depression-resistant (1) to depression-prone (7). The scale has been shown to be highly internally consistent (r =.91; Tabachnick, personal communication, 1984). Evidence for the convergent validity of the DPI is provided by a moderately strong correlation (r =.46) with the Beck Depression Inventory (Tabachnick, personal communication). Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (JFIS). The JFIS (Eagly, 1967, cited in Robinson & Shaver, 1973) has been extensively used as a measure of social self-esteem. The scale asks repondents to indicate how comfortable they are in various social situations, e.g., "How often do you feel that you have handled yourself well at a social gathering?" and "How often are you troubled with shyness?" and "How often do you feel self-conscious?" Each item is answered on a 5-point scale ranging from very often (1) to practically never (5). Half the items are keyed so that an affirmative response indicates low social self-esteem and half are keyed so that an affirmative response indicates high social self-esteem. The total score is obtained by reversing the items keyed in a positive direction and then summing the item scores. The

5 Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Depression-Proneness 385 total score can thus range from 20 (low self-esteem) to 100 (high self-esteem). Eagly reported split-half reliabilities of.72 (1967) and.88 (1969) (cited in Robinson & Shaver, 1973). Further, this scale has been found to correlate strongly (r =.67) with the California Psychological Inventory scale of selfesteem and with self-rating of social self-esteem (r --.60; Robinson & Shaver, 1973). Background Information Questionnaire. Subjects completed a background information sheet that included information about sex, yeat in school, height, weight, and ideal weight. In order to assess the number of pounds that the subjects desired to lose or gain, a discrepancy score was calculated by subtracting a subject's reported weight from her/his ideal weight. Subjects also categorized themselves on a 5-point scale representing perceived weight category range from overweight (1) to underweight (5). In addition, subjects were asked to report frequency of dieting behavior, frequency of behavior directed at increasing weight or size, and frequency of thinking about weight or appearance. They answered each on a five-point scale ranging from all the time (1) to never (5). Classification of Subjects. The nomograph method for assessing body weight (Thomas, McKay, & Cutlip, 1976) was used to classify subjects into weight categories. Subjects' height and weight were first converted to meters and kilograms, and then used to determine a body mass index score (kilograms divided by meters squared). Subjects' body mass index scores were compared to the Thomas et al. (1976) nomograph in order to determine deviation from ranges (comparable to the Metropolitan Life Insurance weight ranges) for each subject's height and weight. Subjects were classified as follows: greater than below the appropriate weight range-underweight; below the appropriate weight range-slightly underweight; within the appropriate weight range-normal; above the appropriate weight range-slightly overweight; and greater than over the appropriate weight range-overweight. As stated, the nomograph method is comparable to the Metropolitan Life Insurance tables, although it has the advantage of being less cumbersome, more mathematically precise, more highly correlated with measures of skinfold thickness, and more accurate when used with year-olds. In addition, unlike the Metropolitan Life Insurance tables, the nomograph method is able to avoid the ambiguous classification of subjects into body frame size categories by providing a continuous quantitative scale for relative weight (Thomas et al., 1976). RESULTS A series of analyses were conducted addressing the hypotheses. The first hypothesis was that there would be a sex difference with regard to body satisfaction, as measured by the BCS, with women expressing greater dissatis-

6 386 MeCaulay, Mintz, and Glenn Table I. Mean Body Dissatisfaction Scores by Sex and Actual Weight Category a Actual weight category OW SOW AW SUW UW All Male (0) (8) (59) (6) (0) (73) Female (1) (5) (78) (14) (5) (103) All (1) (13) (137) (20) (5) aow, overweight; SOW, slightly overweight; AW, average weight; SUW, slightly underweight; UW, underweight. Group N's are in parentheses. faction. When mean scores on body satisfaction were considered by actual weight category, women expressed greater dissatisfaction than men within every weight category except for the slightly underweight group, where men expressed more dissatisfaction. A 2 x 5 (Sex x Weight Category) analysis of variance revealed a significant main effect for sex [F(4,176) = 8.19, p <.005] but not for weight category [F(4,176) , p <. 18] or the interaction [Sex x Weight Category; F(2,176) = 1.9, p <.10]. As can be seen by reviewing means and cell sizes presented in Table I, there were very few subjects categorized as overweight, slightly overweight, or underweight. The second hypothesis was that there would be a sex difference with regard to body perception. It was hypothesized that women would be more likely to have a distorted body perception, seeing themselves as larger than their actual size. It was hypothesized that men would be more accurate in their perceptions. An examination of the total sample revealed that both men and women evidenced some body distortion with regard to their perceived size; however, the patterns of distortion for men and women differed. For the women, 75.7% of the sample were actually in the normal-weight category, but only 40.8% perceived themselves to be of normal weight. For the men, 80.8% were actually in the normal-weight category, and 49.3% accurately perceived themselves as being of normal weight. The majority of the women, 55.3%, perceived themselves to be either slightly overweight or overweight, although only 5.8% were actually in these categories. The men were more evenly divided in the direction of their distortions; 23.3% saw themselves as slightly overweight or overweight, while 11% were actually in these weight categories; 27.4% thought that they were slightly underweight or underweight, when only 8.2% were actually in these weight categories. Within the normal-weight category, 55.9% of the men perceived themselves to be normal weight, while of the women perceived themselves to be of normal weight. Of the women in the normal weight category, 64.1% perceived themselves to be slightly overweight or overweight. For the men in the normal-

7 Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Depression-Proneness 387 weight category, 22% perceived themselves to be slightly underweight or underweight. Another measure of body perception was the difference between actual body weight and ideal body weight. A weight discrepancy score, representing this difference, was calculated. The average weight discrepancy score for the women in the sample was -8.4, indicating that women wanted to lose an average of 8.4 lbs. The average weight discrepancy score for the men in the sample was 2.9, indicating that men wanted to gain an average of 2.9 lbs. These scores were significantly different from each other [t(174) = -7.79, p < ]. Similar patterns were found for each weight category. Within the slightly underweight category, men wanted to gain an average of 15.5 lbs, and women wanted to lose an average of 1.4 lbs. Within the normal weight category, men wanted to gain an average of 2.8 lbs, and women wanted to lose an average of 8.8 lbs. Within the slightly overweight category, men wanted to lose an average of 5.5 lbs, and women wanted to lose an average of 24 lbs. The third hypothesis stated that there would be a relationship between body satisfaction and self-esteem, and that the relationship would be stronger for women than for men. A Pearson product-moment correlation between scores on the BCS and the JFIS revealed that there was a significant negative correlation for the total sample (r = -.31, p < ). This indicates that lower levels of body satisfaction were associated with lower social selfesteem. Significant correlations were found for both women (r = -.28, p < 0.01) and men (r = -.27, p < 0.05). A Fisher's Z test revealed that these correlations were not significantly different from each other. Within the normal-weight category, the correlation was significant only for the men (r = -.27, p < 0.01). Within the slightly overweight category, the correlation was significant for the total group (r = -.76, p <.01), but not by sex. The fourth hypothesis stated that there would be a relationship between body satisfaction and depression-proneness. For the total sample, there was a significant correlation between scores on the BCS and scores on the DPI (r =.24, p < 0.01), indicating that lower levels of body satisfaction w~e associated with higher levels of depression-proneness. The correlation was significant for the men in the sample (r =.34, p < 0.01), but was not significant for the women (r =.13, p > 0.05). These correlations were not, however, significantly different from each other. With regard to weight category, there was a significant correlation within the normal-weight category (r =.25, p < 0.01). The relationship was significant for men within both the normalweight category (r =.27, p < 0.05) and within the slightly u~derweight category (r =.82, p < 0.05). Although no specific central hypotheses were formulate:, regarding the relationship between self-esteem and depression-proneness, analyses on the

8 388 McCaulay, Mintz, and Glenn total sample were conducted as a partial check on the validity of the DPI and the JFIS. There was a significant correlation between the DPI and the JFIS (r =.64, p <.0001). Although no specific hypotheses were formulated, subjects' responses to questions on the background information questionnaire were also investigated. In response to the question, "I think about my weight/appearance," 72.8% of the women and 52% of the men responded "all the time" or "frequently." Within the normal-weight category, 74.4% of the women and 45.8% of the men responded "all the time" or "frequently." In response to the question, "I am on a diet," 35.9% of the women and 3.4% of the men in the normal weight category reported being on a diet, "all the time" or "frequently." In response to the question, "I do things to increase my body weight/size," 39% of the men and 7.7% of the women in the normal weight category responded "all the time," or "frequently." DISCUSSION The results of this study reported the hypothesis that women express more dissatisfaction with their bodies than do men. Although the differences are not statistically significant, when weight categories are considered, it is interesting to note that different patterns emerged. Within the slightly underweight category, men expressed greater body dissatisfaction. In the normal-weight and slightly overweight categories, women expressed greater dissatisfaction. As anticipated, women in this sample were also more likely to show distortion with regard to their perceptions of their body size, seeing themselves as larger than their actual size. There was a fairly consistent pattern, with women typically seeing themselves as one weight category larger than their actual weight. Men were, on the whole, more accurate in their perceptions, but did demonstrate some distortion in both directions, with the greater distortion as a tendency to perceive themselves as smaller than their actual size. These findings were further substantiated by the differences between subjects' reported ideal weight and actual weight. When considering the total sample, women on the average wanted to weigh 8.5 lbs less, while men wanted to weigh about 3 lbs more. This pattern was found throughout the weight categories. These findings are consistent with the societal messages that women should be slender and men should be muscular, and highlight the impact of sociocultural expectations on both men and women. Nevertheless, the specifics of these findings (i.e., exact pound differences between actual and ideal weight; actual vs. perceived weight category) need to be viewed with caution since subjects' "actual weight" and subsequent classification into

9 Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Depression-Proneness 389 weight categories were based on self-report data, which itself may be subject to distortion. The expected relationship between body satisfaction and social selfesteem was found within this sample. Higher levels of body satisfaction were associated with higher levels of social self-esteem. However, contrary to prediction, it was found that this relationship was equally strong for men and women. Previous research (Lerner et al., 1973; Thompson, 1986) reported stronger relationships for women than for men when employing more global measures of self-esteem. However, Mintz and Betz (1986) found that within the normal-weight group in their sample there was no difference between men and women with regard to the relationship between body satisfaction and social self-esteem. Use in the present study of a measure of social selfesteem along with the fact that the majority of the subjects within the present study were in the normal-weight category might, in part, account for the lack of sex difference. In addition, this sample represents a fairly narrow age range of primarily year-olds and a particular small college environment. These factors might also contribute to the lack of sex difference found within this sample. While society places a greater emphasis on appearance for women than for men, these findings suggest that factors such as weight category, age, and environment may also be important to consider when investigating the relationship between body satisfaction and self-esteem. It was also anticipated that body satisfaction would be related to depression-proneness. A relationship between these two factors was found within the sample as a whole. Higher levels of body satisfaction were associated with lower levels of depression-proneness. This relationship, however, was found for men abut not for women. The difference between the two was not significant, but the lack of relationship for women was unexpected. It appears that within this sample, men were concerned with their appearance, and body satisfaction was related to both their self-esteem and their proneness to depression. Women in the sample also appeared very concerned about weight and appearance, but for them, body satisfaction was related to their self-esteem and not to depression-proneness. This finding was contrary to expected results and differed, as well, from the findings of Mintz and Betz (1986). Several studies (Funabiki, Bologna, Pepping, & Fitzgerald, 1980; Hammen & Padesky, 1977; Padesky & Hammen, 1981) have suggested that the differences between women and men with regard to depression is a function of the way they talk about and experience depression. It is possible that the relationship between depression-proneness and body satisfaction is also affected by these factors, as well as by background and demographic differences. A related finding was that depression-proneness scores for women were not significantly different from the depression-proneness scores for men.

10 390 McCaulay, Mintz, and Glenn While this finding differs from previous research examining gender differences in depression between women and men "at large" (Weissman & Klerman, 1979), it is consistent with research examining gender differences in depression among college student samples (Abramowitz, 1969; Funabiki et al., 1980; Padesky & Hammen, 1981). Overall, this study illustrates the need to adopt a broader model about body image and its correlates, incorporating factors such as weight category, age, socioeconomic level, sexual orientation, race, and environment. As illustrated by the present findings, when weight categories are not analyzed separately, some interesting sex differences are obscured. Future studies need to be conducted with a larger number of subjects within each weight category, a significant limitation to the present study. In addition, consideration of percentage body fat and actual as well as reported weight would help to more adequately assess weight categories. Finally, with regard to weight categories, it is important to be aware that even so-called objective measures of body weight (such as the nomograph method) will be influenced by cultural standards. Care should be taken when interpreting such words as normal, average, or appropriate weight. This study adds further evidence to the growing literature on the pervasiveness of concerns and dissatisfaction that individuals experience with regard to their weight and appearance. A significant percentage of the men and women in this sample were engaged in frequent attempts to alter their weight or size in pursuit of cultural ideals. Given these findings, it is possible that a large segment of the "healthy" college population may be at risk for the development of an eating disorder. Educational programs should be directed at informing women and men about the typical patterns and pervasiveness of body distortion. Confrontation of sociocultural norms is critically needed. Finally, these findings clearly indicate that issues related to body image can no longer be considered only women's issues; sociocultural expectations with regard to appearance affect men as well as women. REFERENCES Abramowitz, S. I. Locus of control and self-reported depression among college students. Psychological Reports, 1969, 25, Abramson, L. Y., & Metalski, G. I. The depression proneness inventory. Unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Bruch, H. Thin fat people. In J. R. Kaplan (Ed.), A woman's conflict: The special relationship between women and food. Englewood Cliffs, N J: Prentice Hall, Cash, T. F., Winstead, B. A., & Janda, L. H. The great American shape up. Psychology Today, 1986, pp , Chernin, K. The obsession: Reflections on the tyranny of slenderness. New York: Harper and Row, 1981.

11 Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Depression-Proneness 391 Funabiki, D., Bologna, N. C., Pepping, M., & Fitzgerald, K. C. Revisiting sex differences in the expression of depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1980, 89, Garner, D. M., & Garfinkel, P. E. Cultural expectations of thinness in women. Psychological Reports, 1980, 47, Hammen, C. L., & Padesky, C. A. Sex differences in the expression of depressive responses on the Beck Depression Inventory. Journal of AbnormaIPsychology, 1977, 86, Jourard, S. M., & Secord, P. J. Body-cathexis and the ideal female figure. Journal of Abnorreal and Social Psychology, 1955, 50, Lerner, R. M. Karabenick, S. A., & Stuart, J. L. Relations among physical attractiveness, body attitudes, and self-concept in male and female college students. Journal of Psychology, 1973, 85, Marsella, A. J., Shizuru, L., Brenan, J., & Kameoka, V. Depression and body image satisfaction. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 1981, 12(3), Miller, T. M., Coffman, J. G., & Linke, R. A. Survey of body-image, weight, and diet of college students. Journal of the American Dietic Association, 1980, 77(5), Mintz, L. B., & Betz, N. B. Sex differences in the nature, realism, and correlates of body image. Sex Roles, 1986, 15, Noles, S. W., Cash, T. F., & Winstead, B. A. Body image, physical attractiveness, and depression. Journal of Consulting and Climcal Psychology, 1985, 53(1), Padesky, C. A., & Hammen, C. L. Sex differences in depressive symptom expression and helpseeking among college students. Sex Roles, 1981, 7, Robinson, J. P., & Shaver, P. R. Measures of social psychological attitudes, 2nd ed. MI: Institute for Social Research, Rosen, G. M., & Ross, A. O. Relationship of body-image to self-concept. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1968, 32(1), 100. Thomas, A. E., McKay, D. A., & Cutlip, M. B. A nomograph method for assessing body weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1976, 29, Thompson, J. K. Larger than life. Psychology Today, 1986, pp. 39, 42, 44. Weinburg, J. R. A further investigation of body cathexis and the self. Journal of Consultmg Psychology, 1960, 24, 277. Weissman, M. M., & Klerman, G. L. Sex differences and the epidemiology of depression. In E. S. Gonberg & V. Franks (Eds.), Gender and disordered behavior. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1979.