CHAPTER - III METHODOLOGY CONTENTS. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Attitude Measurement & its devices
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1 102 CHAPTER - III METHODOLOGY CONTENTS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Attitude Measurement & its devices Prior Scales Psychophysical Scales Sigma Scales Master Scales 3.3 Attitude Measurement Techniques Non-disguised-structured Non-disguised-non structured Disguised-non structured Disguised-structed The Method of Equal-appearing intervals The Method of paired comparisons The Method of Successive Intervals The Method of Summated Ratings 3.4 Comparision of Testing Techniques 3.5 Scalogram Analysis 3.6 Plan and Procedure Collection of the Statements Analysing the Statements Analysis of the Judges' Ratings Selection of the Final list of the Statements References
2 INTRODUCTION: It is being remarked that psychological measurement in general, and attitude measurement in particular, are not measurements in the true sense. Attitude measurement is a difficult task for a researcher as it involves collection and evaluation of appropriate statements. In practice, attitudes are associated with social stimuli and emotionally toned responses. Attitudes can be called as generalized ways of behaving and viewing situations which are inferred from the verbal and non-verbal behaviour of the individual. Attitude measurement refers to assigning numerals to persons according to a set of rules that created to attain a similarity between the assigned numerals and the person s attitude towards the object in question. Attitude being a complex affair cannot be wholly described by any single numerical index. The critical point is the measurement of the real attitudes of the individual, his verbal behaviour or his non-verbal overt behaviour. A question arises whether an individual is to be judged by his actions according to his words or according to his attitude scale scores. Sometimes a person's behaviour is not his real behaviour, sometimes he behaves in a particular situation to win the confidence and approval of society. Now to measure
3 104 a person's public attitudes and his private attitudes and how to find out the relationship between the two is a problem. Another difficulty in attitude research is whether the question should be specific or general questions are to be specific so as to make the items relevant to the respondents. But, if they are the specific, there is a danger of their becoming outdated with the lapse of time. The demand for evaluations and measures have been met, which are impersonal and have the general validity and objectivity of measures. For this there is the need for instruments which do not destroy the natural form of the attitude in the process of describing it. Attitude is such an abstract, complex mental set up that its measurement has remained controversial. The rise of 'Psychometrics' provided enough instruments to construct psychological tools. Intelligence, qptitudes, interests, achievements were begun to be measured quantitatively through suitable tests. Psychometricians devised suitable techniques to measure attitudes also scientific treatment to attitudes requires quantification. Attitude scales began to be devised which could assess attitudes in a quantitative manner. The attitude scales may be classified according to methods of constructing attitude measuring devices which are as follows.
4 ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT AND ITS DEVICES: Priori Scales: The crudest method of measuring attitudes is that of the case method, closely followed by ballot counting, as exemplified in various public opinion polls. Such devices are in fact two-point "scales". The proportions of 'Yes' and 'No' votes are taken as an index of the existing social attitude for a given population Psychological Scales: The method of such scales consists of arranging a series of opinions relevant to a given attitude object, ranging all the way from most favourable to most unfavourable, in equally spacial, experimentally determined units along a continum Sigma Scales: These scales are constructed on the assumption that attitudes are distributed normally. The attitudes are measured using standard deviation units. The method is criticised on the ground that it makes the doubtful assumption of normality of distribution. And such findings do not warrant discarding the judging group, especially if measurement of individuals rather than groups is desired.
5 Master Scales: It is a device in which the statements of the scale do not refer to a particular attitude, object, but they are stated in a general form. Such scales are largely devised as they can be useful for various attitude objects. 3.3 ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES: Campbell (1950) has distinguished four types of instruments to measure attitudes Non-disguised structured: The classic attitude tests of Thurston Likert et.al Non-disguised - non-structured: The free response interview and questionnaire approaches, the Biographical and Essay Studies Disguised non-structured: The typical projective techniques, e.g. approaches based on the thematic apperception test. Doll-play technique, sentence completion tests and miscellaneous nonstructured techniques Disguised structured: Tests which approximate the objective testing of attitudes, e.g. information tests, estimation of group opinion and social norms, tests of ability to do critical thinking,
6 107 tests employing bias in perception and memory and such other tests. The Dictionary of Education (1959) defines an attitude scale as an attitude measuring instrument, the units of which have been experimentally determined and equated, designed to obtain quantitative evaluation of an attitude to be distinguished from attitude questionnaire in which there is no such rational equality of units. An attitude scale is based on three important assumptions: (1) The scale deals with a controversial question. (2) An individual's feelings and insights in regard to the question will determine his responses to the various statements that are made pro and con. (3) The statements can be scaled regarding the degree to which they favour or are opposed to the question under consideration. We find that the scale measures the positivity - negativity of the affective reactions. A scale used is to be carefully tested for validity and reliability. It should measure what it purports to measure and should yield consistent results when applied under the same conditions. The scales can be subsumed under different headings.
7 108 (1) Scales in which the items, scale values and other characteristics are largely determined by a panel of judges. Under this comes 'Thurstone Technique'. It is the adaptation of psychological methods to the qualification of judgement data. (2) Scales based on item analysis. The 'Likert Technique'. (3) Scales constructed in accordance with the 'scale analysis' techniques devised by Louis Guttman and his coworkers The Method of Equal - appearing intervals: The method of equal-appearing intervals as developed by Thurstone and his associates is derived from psychological techniques. It seeks to analyze people on a continuous scale having equal-appearing units. The procedure is as follows: There are three main steps in this technique: 1. Preparation of possible items 2. Sorting out by judges and 3. Testing for relevance. In the beginning a large number of simple statements which express some kind of opinion about the attitude objects under study are collected. Possible statements are obtained by collecting opinions from writers and laymen reflecting
8 109 all shades of belief. These items should cover the entire continuum of attitude toward the object in question, from extreme unfavourable on the one hand to extreme favourable on the other. Each item is placed on a slip of paper. The entire pack of slips is then given to a judge * who places the slips in eleven piles, ranging from one extreme to the other in approximately equal steps. This is the reason for the name "Method of equal-appearing intervals." The equal intervals are differences in attitude that appear equal to the judges. After a statement has been scaled by a number of judges, it is discarded if judges disagree markedly in sorting out it. For statements retained, the scale value is the median position assigned by the judges. To give an idea of the spread of the distribution about the scale value(s) the inter quartile range (G) is also calculated. This may be regarded as a measure of ambiguity of a statement and thus will give an objective criteria for eliminating unsuitable items. The statements chosen are then placed in a preliminary check list. This list is given to subjects as means of checking the relevance of items. The scores of those who check a given item are tabulated. Items which are frequently checked by people whose attitude score is far from the scale value of the item discarded.
9 110 The final scale consists of items which have passed, the tests for ambiguity and relevancy. Final items are selected to represent the entire range of attitudes The Method of paired comparisons: A particularly sound technique, the paired comparison method, has received less attention than it deserves. The subject is given the paired terms, each term being paired with another term. The subject marks the preferred member of each pair. From these judgements, one can reconstruct with great reliability the rank order of preferences one can determine a scale-value or acceptance score for each group. Paired comparisons have the advantage of being precise, free from response, sets and relatively hard to falsify, since each item demands a response. The weaknesses of the method are that it is time consuming and it does not measure what each person believes about each stimulus, as it measures relative preferences only. Suitable adaptation of the method might overcome this difficulty The Method of Successive Intervals: The method, like the method of equal-appearing intervals, requires but a single judgement from each subject for each statement to be scaled. It is, therefore a
10 Ill convenient method to use when the number of statements to be scaled is large. Any of the judging methods as described in the method of equal-appearing intervals may be used. Data will be in the same form. For each statement there will be a frequency distribution showing the number of time that the statement has been placed in each of the successive intervals. These frequencies may be cumulated, from left to right, and the cumulative frequencies may be expressed as cumulative proportions by multiplying each one by the reciprocal of the number of judges. The scale values of the statements may then be taken as the medicins of the corresponding cumulative proportion distributions. The further procedure is same as it is in the method of equal-appearing intervals The Method of Summated Ratings; This method generally associated with the work of Rensis Likert,is an application to attitude scaling of itemanalysis procedures borrowed from test-construction techniques. First of all as in the case of method of equal appearing intervals, a large number of statements relating to the attitude object in question are collected. These items are
11 112 to be carefully edited by the investigator to eliminate ambiguous irrelevant, and otherwise faulty items. The items are then drawn up in the form of a questionnaire or attitude test, each item being given multiple response categories of "strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, strongly disagree." The statements should be so constructed that for half of them an "agree" response represents a favourable attitude toward the attitude object in question, and for the other half a "disagree" response represents a favourable attitude. This experiment instrument is then administered to a reasonably large group of subjects and asked to indicate their own attitudes by checking the response to each item which most nearly expresses their feeling on that item. The subject indicates his reaction to each statement usually on a five point scale. These answers are credited 5,A,3,2 and 1 respectively for favourable statements and 1,2,3,A and 5 respectively for unfavourable statements. A favourable attitude is shown in a high score. A subjects score is the sum of the weights assigned to the responses which he has made. The items are then analysed for their discriminatory power with respect to measurement of the attitude in question, by any one of the several item-analysis procedures available. Perhaps, the simplest index is to take the top and bottom of
12 113 subjects on the distribution of total scores, and calculate the mean of the responses to each item for each of these groups separately. Those items are the most discriminating which show the greatest discrepancy in mean response between high and low extreme groups. The f1 ml attitude scale is then constructed by choosing from the total list which show the greatest discrimination. These items are used with the same five agree-disagree response categories, and scoring is done in the same way. 3.4 COMPARISON OF TESTING TECHNIQUES: Several investigators have tried to establish the comparative merits of the Thurstone and Likert techniques. Since corresponding scales of the two types have high correlations, there is little difference except in convenience. The time required to construct a Thurstone type scale is a drawback. Careful construction of a Likert type scale requires about half the time needed for the Thurstone procedure The factors which make for invalid self-repcrt are equally present in both tests. The Likert method permits response sets to influence the score, which might lcwer validity. Whereas directions for the Thurstone scale require one to check say, the six statements with which he most agrees, no response sets affect the score.
13 114 In equal-appearing interval scales, the attitude score obtained by a single subject has an absolute interpretation. That is because the attitude score is taken as the median of the scale values of the statements with which the subject agrees. Thus the interpretation of an attitude socre on an equal-appearing interval scale can be made independently of the distribution of scores for a particular group of subjects. Whereas, the interpretation of an attitude score on a summated rating scale cannot be made independently of the distribution of scores of some defined group. The summated rating score corresponding to zero or neutral point on a favourable unfavourable continum is not known; as it is assumed to be known in the case of equal-appearing interval scores. Nor is there any evidence to indicate that the neutral point on a summated rating scale necessarily corresponds to the mid-point of the possible range of scores, i.e. to the score of 50 on a 25 item scale. 3.5 SCALOGRAM ANALYSIS: It differs considerably from the methods of constructing attitude scales that have been previously described. In one sense, it is not a method for constructing or developing an attitude scale, although it has been referred to as such by other writers. It is referred as a Guttman scale or a Cumulative scale, as it is set forth in some detail by Guttman.
14 115 The question arises about a proper criterion for unidimensionality of a scale. Guttman, who is principally responsible for the theory and techniques of "scale analysis, has proposed the following. If a single quantitative score is to represent, without ambiguity, the behaviour of an individual on a large group of items, we must know the individual's score, to know his behaviour on each and every item in the group. Guttman has called this as the principle of reproductivity. 3.6 PLAN AND PROCEDURE: It is necessary to prepare an outline of the plan on which the whole investigation is to be based. The first phase of the investigation relates to the construction of the scale to measure the attitude the following are the major steps. 1. Framing and collection of items. 2. Editing the items. 3. Selecting a group of judges. 4. Analysis of the judges' ratings. 5. Preparation of the scale Framing and collection of items; The first step in the construction of attitude scale is to obtain statements depicting different degrees of attitudes, from most favourable to most unfavourable towards education. Some of the statements are prepared by the
15 investigator, others were obtained from parents, principals, students, Teachers and some educationists. The tool aims at measuring attitudes of parents towards following areas of Home Science education (i) Intelectuall (ii) Social (iii) Vocational aspects. For the preparation of attitude scale near about 500statement were collected from the different sources mention above Analysing the Statements: The statements collected were read carefully by the investigator. Those statements which represented identical ideas were grouped. Out of these simple and clear statements were chosen. All the other statements were studied and edited and a few more statements were added by the investigator. Special care was taken to ensure that the statements selected represent all shades of opinion from the most favourable to the most unfavourable. For statements to be included in Attitude Scales, Thurstone and others suggested a number of criteria as under. Statement that refers to past rather than to the present should be avoided. Those statements which are factual or capable of being interpreted as factual should be avoided. Statements which may be interpreted in more than one way should be avoided
16 117 Statements which are irrelevant to the psychological object under consideration should also be avoided. Statements those are likely to be endorsed by almost everyone or by almost none should be avoided. Statements, believed to cover the entire range of the affective scale of interest should be preferably selected The language of the statements should be simple, clear and direct. Statements should be short, rarely exceeding 20 words Each statement should contain only one complete thought. Statements containing universals such as all, always, none and never often introduce ambiguity and hence they should be avoided. Words such as only, just, merely and others of similar nature should be used with care and moderation in writing statements. Whenever possible, statements should be in the form of simple sentences rather than in the form of compound or complex sentences. The use of words that may not be understood by those who are to be given the completed scale should be avoided. The use of double negatives should be avoided.
17 118 According to these criterias statements were analysed carefully by the investigator. A statements which does not carry uniform meaning are eliminated Analysis of the Judges* Ratings: Team of judges were requested to judge these statements carefully. These judges were requested to rate these statements each of which expressed some kind of attitude towards Home-Science education on a nine point scale. Judges were persons who would give care to the task assigned to them. Professors from training colleges, professors from other colleges and prominent educationists worked as judges. The nine point scale was clearly explained to the judges and the list of statements regarding all the three areas of Home-Science education was also given to them. The judges were requested to rate each statement by giving numbers. The statement that represented the most unfavourable attitude was to be given the category 'one' and the statement that represented the most favourable attitude was to be given the category nine. The neutral statements were to be given the category 'five*. The data obtained frcm Team of judges were tabulated for each statement showing the frequency with which it was placed in each of the nine categories by the group of judges. The median of the distribution of judgements for each statement is taken as the scale value of the statement.
18 119 This parameters served as the criteria for building the attitude scale. The median scale value of each statement regarding all the three areas of Home-Science education is presented in the following tables. Median Value Tables; Statement No. Median Value Statement No. Median Value , V>i CD
19 120 Statement No. Median Value Statement No. Median Value
20 121 Statement No. Median Value Statement No. Median Value Selection of the Final List of the Statements: The data calculated for the distribution of each statement were tabulated and analysed carefully. A statement having the scale values more or less equi-spaced were selected for the final list. After the selection of statement they were scrutinize in three areas of Home-Science
21 122 education i.e. (I) Intellectual development (II) Social development (III) Vocational aspect. Total 122 statements were selected. 49 statements regarding Intellectual aspect 28 regarding social aspect and 45 regarding vocational aspect. The scale values of these statements were more or less equally spaced between one and nine to represent the entire range of attitudes. These final attitude scale were administered to 2000 parents of Kaira District whose children were studying in Home Science Branches. The scale is self admistering, hence no other instructions were necessary except those appearing in the scale itself.
22 123 Chapter - III References 1. Downie, N.M.: Fundamentals of Measurement Techniques and Practices: Now York, Oxford University Press, Ch.16, pp Edwards, A.L.: Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction: New York, Appleton-Century Crafts, Inc., Ch.II-VIII. 3. Guttman, Louis: A Basis for Scaling Qualitative Data : American Sociological Review, 1944, pp Remmers, H.H. and Gage, N.L.: Educational Measurement and Evaluation : New York, Harper and Brothers, 1955, Ch.XIV, pp
23 124 " Analysis and interpretation of the data is the heart of research report." J.W. Best
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