Pre-performance routines followed by free throw shooting accuracy in secondary basketball players

Transcription

1 Original Paper Biomedical Human Kinetics, 7, , 2015 DOI: /bhk Pre-performance routines followed by free throw shooting accuracy in secondary basketball players Ashley Phelps 1, Pamela Kulinna 2 1 Doctoral Student, College of Applied Health Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA; 2 Arizona State University, USA Summary Study aim: The purpose of the current study was to determine whether existing pre-performance routines had an effect on free throw shooting accuracy in high school pupils as compared to shooting without a pre-performance routine. Materials and methods: Participants were 34 freshman high school basketball players. Twenty male (n = 20) and fourteen female (n = 14) of various ethnic backgrounds were randomly assigned to a condition and were asked to implement a preperformance routine in one condition and a non-pre-performance routine in another condition for free throw shooting. A within subjects crossover design was used to analyse the data based on a pre-performance routine and a non-pre-performance routine framework. The pre-performance routine conditions were considered the experimental conditions. A Missed-Made Shots table was used to track performance (miss-made shots) for the shots in both conditions. Results: There were differences between the experimental condition (pre-performance routine) and the comparison condition (non-pre-performance routine) Z(22) = 4.61, p < 0.01 with the experimental condition s median scores out-performing the comparison condition scores; however the differences were very small. Conclusions: These findings suggest that there were differences between the experimental condition (pre-performance routine) and the comparison condition (non-pre-performance routine). Results suggest that there may be additional relevant factors in addition to pre-performance routines that should be considered in helping youth develop closed motor skills (e.g., mental imagery, physical exertion, outside factors audience). Keywords: Pre-performance Free throw Routine Non-routine Closed-skill Introduction Pre-performance routines are individualized tasks that are intended to prepare the athlete for correct execution [3]. These routines in various sports involve formal, repetitive, and sequential behaviour. Routines help athletes divert attention from task-irrelevant cues to task-relevant cues [12, 27]. It has been suggested that one method that might help athletes execute a closedskill successfully in the face of such potential distractions (e.g., thoughts about the consequences of failure, movement in the audience and physical fatigue) is to develop a consistent set of cognitions and behaviours that are executed before performance of the motor skill [6]. There is a widespread belief that pre-performance routines can have a positive impact on performance [15, 21]. Recent research has suggested that the utilization of a pre-performance routine can assist in the establishment of an optimal physiological and psychological state at critical times in an athlete s performance, that is, immediately prior to the execution of a skill [4]. Cohn [6] proposed that the inclusion of a cognitive element, utilizing skills such as relaxation, or positive self-talk, creates the optimal psychological state, while behavioural tasks, such as physically practicing the movement, promote desired physiological states. Typically, when basketball players are sent to the free-throw line after being fouled, they demonstrate some sort of routine before attempting their shot. More specifically, in a previous study, authors showed a high success rate of free throw shots attempted (284) when athletes adhered to a dominant behavioural sequence (84%). The follow-up analyses indicated that adding a new behaviour to one s pre-performance routine appeared to detract from performance [18]. Similar findings have been reported for volleyball players who Author s address Ashley Phelps, Doctoral Student, College of Applied Health Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 906 S. Goodwin Ave, Urbana, IL 61801, USA anphelp2@illinios.edu

2 172 A. Phelps, P. Kulinna are serving the ball. After winning a rally, the server will go behind the service line and exhibit some sort of routine whether it be bouncing the ball a certain number of times, spinning the ball, taking deep breaths, or assuming their balanced position. These pre-performance routines establish a specific duration, consistency, and rythmicity [15, 21]. Although there is an urge for athletes to develop a consistent pattern of cognitions and behaviours to be executed before performance of a self-paced skill, more research is needed in regards to the training protocols and their effectiveness [24, 28]. In the current study, it was hypothesized that free throw shooting accuracy will be greater following pre-performance routines. Purpose Pre-performance mental and behavioural routines have been cited in numerous publications as been important to the execution of effective closed-skill performance [8]. The implementation of pre-performance routines can lead to successful outcomes [10]. One limitation remains common throughout these studies: The numbers of participants in each study were fairly small. It has also been suggested that pre-performance routines are efficiently learned through formal instructional programs. By teaching learners the use of such techniques as a pre-performance routine, instructors can assist them in developing a plan of action and activating appropriate physical and cognitive processes. From a neuroscience perspective, Travis et al. [26] suggest that consciously performing any task regularly over time may lead to cortical reorganization and that the reversal of this process is difficult to achieve. However, there could be exceptional circumstances where changing the existing behaviours are in the best interests of the player. Previous studies suggest that free throw shooting accuracy will be greater following pre-performance routines. Whether it be a temporal regimen, a behavioural adjustment, imagery, positive self-talk, or relaxation preperformance routines are critical in a closed-skill execution. There were no studies that could be found on high school students pre-performance routines for closed skills (i.e., basketball free throw shots). It is essential that studies be conducted with this age group so researchers and coaches can learn more about pre-performance routines and their role in free throw shooting accuracy. Researchers and coaches also need to know more about biomechanical patterns, different types of mental imagery, and temporal behaviour during the preparatory period of a free throw and how these variables contribute to free throw shooting accuracy. As a result, the impact of pre-performance routines in this group may make significant contributions early on at the free throw line. The purpose of the current study was to determine whether existing pre-performance routines had an effect on free throw shooting accuracy in high school pupils as compared to shooting without a preperformance routine as well as to provide information on temporal behavior. Materials and methods Setting This study was conducted at a secondary school in the Southwestern USA. The school was located in an upper middle class neighbourhood in a small school district and is comprised of approximately 1400 pupils (48% female, 79% Caucasian, 10% African American, 7% Hispanic, 4% American Indian/Alaskan Native) in grades 9 12, with 15% of the pupils eligible for a free and reduced lunch. There were 42 full-time teachers who were employed at the school, yielding a 33:1 student to teacher ratio. Overall, the school performed above average on state standardized tests in mathematics, reading, and writing. The school had adequate facilities for a range of physical education and physical activity opportunities, such as a multi-purpose gymnasium, fitness room with cardiovascular and selectorized resistance training equipment, five outdoor grass fields, four outdoor tennis courts, and a 400 meter track. All male and female freshman basketball players were eligible for participation in this study. Participants The school freshman boy s basketball team was comprised of twenty athletes (n = 20) and the girl s freshman basketball team was comprised of fourteen athletes (n = 14). All of the participants were between years of age and had played competitive basketball for more than two years in both club and school related functions. Each team was comprised of pupils with various ethnic backgrounds 15% African American, 15% Hispanic, and 70% Caucasian. Procedures Before data collection began, all parents/guardians were sent a letter that explained the nature and purpose of the study, particularly the observational nature of the study in that it did not require interactions beyond what is expected in normal basketball practice. Parents/guardians and pupils were given the opportunity to withdraw consent by returning a signed opt-out form (included in the study description letter) with assurance that voluntarily withdrawing from study participation had no negative consequences for them, or their child. The District and the University s Institutional Review Board approved the study methodology to assure compliance

3 Pre-performance routines 173 with acceptable research practices for all persons involved in the study. Research design This study used a within subjects crossover design. Participants were randomly assigned to a condition from a numerical list using a random number generator. The boy s freshman team was split in half (Condition A = 10, Condition B = 10). The girl s freshman team was also split in half (Condition A = 7, Condition B = 7). Condition A, Time 1 was the control condition. This condition did not implement a pre-performance routine prior to shooting their free throws. They were simply given the basketball and told to shoot no pre-performance indicators allowed (dribbling, deep breaths, spinning of the ball, etc.). Condition B, Time 1 on the other hand incorporated their normal pre-performance routine prior to shooting their free throws. Both conditions shot a total of twenty free throws per participant. Research personnel recorded missed and made free throw shots. All pupils participated in both conditions in this alternating treatment. Temporary changes, such as fatigue, were avoided by allowing 24 hours in between conditions. Instruments The dependent variable for this study was the number of free throws made out of twenty. The independent variables for this study were conditions (pre-performance routine vs. non-pre-performance routine). Missed-Made Shots table The numbers of free throws made were measured using a Missed-Made Shots table. The research team marked a tally under whichever appropriate column the participant s shot landed under. This form also included the participant s number and condition. Statistical analysis Descriptive statistics were calculated for all variables and visual analysis of graphs was used to identify functional relationships between the intervention condition and non-intervention condition. A Wilcoxon Signed Ranks non-parametric test was performed due to the ordinal nature of the data to determine if there were statistically significant differences between the two conditions (routine, no routine). The data were paired due to the cross-over design (i.e. non-parametric version of a paired t-test was used). Statistical analyses were done using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 22.0 by International Business Machines (IBM) (North Castle, New York, 2014). The convention was set at alpha A p-value lower than alpha denoted a significant difference. Results Results from the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Non-Parametric Test indicated that there were differences between the conditions the experimental condition (used preperformance routines) and the comparison condition (did not use pre-performance routines) Z(22) = 4.61, p < The experimental condition s median scores out-performing the comparison conditions scores; however the differences were very small. The routine condition had a mean of (SD = 3.77 with a range of 3 18 shots made). The non-routine condition had a mean of (SD = 3.70 and a range of 2 16 shots made). Please see Figure 1 for the graph depicting the descriptive results by condition. Free throws shots made Discussion Min Max Routine Non-routine Fig. 1. Total minimum and maximum made free throw shots by condition The purpose of this study was to determine whether existing pre-performance routines had a significant impact on free throw shooting accuracy in high school pupils. Based on the results, there were differences between the experimental condition (pre-performance routine) and the comparison condition (non-pre-performance routine). These findings correlate with Lonsdale and Tam [18], Foster, Baines et al. [1], Collins et al. [7], Miller [19], Lidor and Mayan [14], and Thelwell et al. [25] who reported that pre-performance routines improved performance in basketball, golf, water polo, volleyball, and cricket respectively. Previous closed-skill studies at the elite level have indicated that experts efficiently attend to information that is relevant for their actions, while leaving irrelevant and potentially distracting information unattended [20]. Focused attention is especially necessary in self-paced and closedskill tasks [24], such as the precision sports of basketball

4 174 A. Phelps, P. Kulinna free throws, golf, and pistol shooting because the performers are more vulnerable to internal or external distractions prior to and/or during task execution. Therefore, maintaining focus on a target and avoiding distractions from irrelevant information are the keys to success in these types of sports. In some studies the characteristics of optimal performance at the free throw line include a sustained and constant investment of mental effort, such as arousal and attention. The biomechanical breakdown of the basketball free throw has also been observed and noted to the contribution of free throw outcomes as part of pre-performance routines. For example, in a biomechanical study conducted by Schmidt [23], special characteristics of the basketball free throw movement were identified. It is a full body movement, a precision shooting task and a closed-skill. Obviously, the ready-to-shoot-position a movement phase, where the ball lies in the shooting hand, while the shooter holds it in front of or above the forehead and aims at the basket is especially significant for the performance outcome of the free throw action. In a biomechanical investigation of the basketball free-throw action, looking at ten players of the German national team, the ready-to-shoot-position was identified as the checkpoint of the whole motion sequence. The basketball free throw was scientifically identified as a two-cycle movement, where the flexion and extension of the shooting arm happen first, followed by the flexion and extension of the knees. The point of return movement between the two cycles is, in fact, the ready-to-shoot-position. The ready to shoot position was emphasized as the necessity of carefully coordinating several force impulses for a successful outcome. In a golf study conducted by Collins et al., results suggested that participants who planned well while developing their pre-performance routines, using specific psychological skills emerged with a robust strategy to deal with unexpected events, distracters, stress, and tension. The implementation of pre-planned pre-performance routines that includes situational specific and enduring psychological skills, coupled with a deliberate allocation of attention to reduce the tendency for the unexpected to affect performance is clearly desirable, and possibly crucial for mastery of stressful situations associated with this level of golf performance. Routines may also be most effective when they are built upon the personality, coping resources, and situational appraisals of each individual performer. This approach would recognize the individuality of the golfer, avoiding a one-size-fits-all approach. Routines should be built around the enduring psychological skills that the golfer is likely to employ regardless of the situation [7]. Similar to the golf study conducted by Collins et al. [7], water polo players used relaxation techniques, concentration cues, and imagery in their pre-performance routines (e.g., participants would imagine the perfect shot and take a deep breath prior to execution). The steps the water polo players implemented suggested that their pre-performance routines were related to their skill proficiency. In another study, video recordings of pre-performance routines were analysed. The behavioural meanings behind these routines were established (to see if the players were aware of their actions during these practice patterns). There was also a developing focus and function for each behavioural component that was addressed and a routine construction and agreement was set in place this sought to explore what the players were seeking to achieve in the preparation period. And lastly, the athletes practiced their pre-performance routine. A volleyball study examined the importance of motor and cognitive components of two pre-performance routines on achievement in serving in volleyball among sixty female beginning learners (mean age = 16.5 years). The motor pre-performance learners were taught to implement a consistent routine of motor behaviours each time before they served the ball. The cognitive pre-performance learners were instructed to: Stand in a ready position on the serving line, imagine themselves successfully performing the serving task, focus attention on an external cue related to the task or learning environment, such as the upper edge of the net; and then execute the serve. The main finding revealed in study two was that learners who were taught a motor-emphasized pre-performance routine were more accurate in the retention trials than both learners who were instructed to use a cognitive-emphasized routine and learners who were provided with only technical information [14]. Free throw shooting accuracy. Although previous research studies have suggested that free throw shooting accuracy is greater followed by pre-performance routines, the previous studies [1, 7, 14, 18, 19, 25] have focused solely on athletes at the elite level. Similarly, studies that have been done on pre-performance routines at the free throw line [1, 18] have had similar results in that preperformance routines do indeed have a positive impact on free throw shooting accuracy, however, the impact was not statistically significant. According to Lonsdale and Tam [18], it is possible that the adoption of a new behaviour could evoke cognitions that distract the shooter, thus making it more likely that he or she invokes conscious processing during the shot, or prevents the initiation of the correct schema. Perhaps having the participants implement a different type of pre-performance behavioural pattern aside from their dominant one could have yielded different results. Taking away the participants routine and having them simply shoot from the free throw line could have allowed them to develop some sort of rhythm.

5 Pre-performance routines 175 There are numerous factors that may have contributed to the findings, including the sample size as well as the age of the participants. The small sample size and specific population of basketball players is a limitation of this study that limits the generalizability of the findings. Future research suggests broadening the subject base and varying the skill levels in different research to be more insightful. An example of this would be beginner studies, intermediate studies, and elite athlete studies. Conclusion The results of this study support the conclusion that when participants implemented their pre-performance routine at the free throw line, they experienced more success; however, that success was not significantly different compared to their non-routine trials. The results from this study appear to be different from professional and collegiate athletes where clear improvements were seen with the use of pre-performance routines. Further studies are needed to learn more about pre-performance routines across sports and athlete experience levels as well as with motor emphasis, cognitive emphasis, and instructions. References 1. Baines D., Foster D.J., Weigand D.A. (2006) The effect of removing superstitious behaviour and introducing a pre-performance routine on basketball free throw performance. J. Appl. Sport Psychol., 18: Barr K.A., Hall C.R., Rodgers W.M. (1990) The use of imagery by athletes in selected sports. Sport Psychol, 4: Bell R.J., Finch W.H., Whitaker Z. (2011) Duration of pre-performance routines of divers and performance outcomes. Sport J., 14: Boutcher S.H., Zinsser N.W. (1990) Cardiac deceleration of elite and beginning golfers during putting. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol., 12: Bull S.J., Heath B., Marlow C., Shambrook C.J. (1998) The use of a single case design to investigate the effect of a pre-performance routine on the water polo penalty shot. J. Sci. Med. Sport, 1(3): Cohn P.J. (1990) Preperformance routines in sport: Theoretical support and practical applications. Sport Psychol., 4: Collins D., Cotterill S., Sanders R. (2010) Developing effective pre-performance routines in golf: Why don t we ask the golfer? J. Appl. Sport Psychol., 22: Cotterill S.T. (2011) Experiences of developing pre-performance routines with elite cricket players. J. Sport Psychol. Action, 2: Czech D.R., Ploszay A., Burke K.L. (2004) An examination of the maintenance of preshot routines in basketball free throw shooting. J. Sport Behav., 27: Davids K. (2006) Movement System Variability. Hum. Kinet., USA Gorohovsky J. (2009) Open sport (skills) vs closed sport (skills). Retrieved from: english_to_russian/sports_fitness_recreation/ open_sports_skills_vs_closed_sports_skills.html 12. Gould D., Udry E. (1994) Psychological skills for enhancing performance: Arousal regulation strategies. Med. Sci. Sport Exerc., 26: Kim C.W., Lim Y.K., Woo B.H. (2007) Variability of basketball free throw. J. Biomech., 40: Lidor R., Mayan Z. (2005) Can beginning learners benefit from preperformance routines when serving in volleyball? Sport Psychol., 19: Lidor R., Singer R.N. (2000) Teaching preperformance routines to beginners. J. Phys. Educ. Recreat. Dance, 71(7): Lidor R., Singer R.N. (2003) Preperformance routines in self-paced tasks: Developmental and educational considerations. In: R. Lidor, K.P. Henschen (eds.), The psychology of team sports. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology, pp Lola A., Tzetzis G., Zetou H. (2012) The effect of implicit and explicit practice in the development of decision making in volleyball serving. Percept. Mot. Skills, 114(2): Lonsdale C., Tam J.T.M. (2007) On the temporal and behavioural consistency of pre-performance routines: An intra-individual analysis of elite basketball players free throw shooting accuracy. J. Sports Sci., 26(3): Miller B. (1991) Mental preparation for competition. Sport psychology: A self help guide. The Crowood Press Milton J., Solodkin A., Small S.L. (2007) The mind of expert motor performance is cool and focused. Neuroimage, 35: Moran A.P. (1996) The psychology of concentration in sport performers. Psychology Press, Moran A.P. (2004) Sport and exercise psychology: A critical introduction, Schmidt A. (2012) Movement pattern recognition in basketball free-throw shooting. Hum. Mov. Sci., 31: Singer R.N., Lidor R., Cauraugh J.H. (1993) To be aware or not aware? What to think about while learning and performing a motor skill. Sport Psychol., 7: Thelwell R.C., Weston N.J.V., Greenlees I.A. (2007) Batting on a sticky wicket: Identifying sources of stress and associated coping strategies for professional cricket batsmen. Psychol. Sport Exerc., 8:

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