The Decision Making Process
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1 DECISION MAKING PROCESS SLIDE 1 INTRODUCTORY SLIDE For those who would like to walk students through a more traditional-looking process of Decision Making When Ethics Are in Play, the following notes and accompanying PowerPoint slides are provided. The first part of this set of notes briefly outlines one way to depict the traditional business decision making process. Part 2 takes students through the process of applying ethical decision making criteria. Part 3 provides some insights in the personal biases that different decision makers might bring to the table when a decision involving ethics is required. Part 2 of these notes can be discussed in conjunction with the materials on ETHICAL THEORIES. Part 3 of these notes can be discussed in conjunction with the turnkey presentation, Decision Making When Ethics Are in Play. PART 1 - DECISION-MAKING STEPS This section overviews some of the traditional steps that decision makers undertake in their decision making activities. SLIDE 2 DECISION-MAKING PROCESS This slide provides a brief overview of the traditional business decision-making process. The most important aspect of these slides is found in Bullet 3. Students must understand that traditional business decision-making criteria cannot be abandoned when decisions that have ethical ramifications are being made. However, these must be discussed, and often tempered, as ethics considerations are brought into the discussion (see Slide 3). 1. Problem Recognition and Information Gathering Identify the decisions and issues (ethical and otherwise) that are involved. Is there something wrong personally, interpersonally, or socially here? Identify the affected stakeholders and determine their interests, values, and opinions. Identify any legal requirements of the decision. 2. Identify Alternative Courses of Action Brainstorm not only the obvious, and possibly conflicting, courses of action in the situation or ethical dilemma, but also think of a possible creative way to resolve the dilemma. 3. Evaluate Alternatives Courses of Action Students must be reminded that in most business situations, standard business criteria must be used to evaluate alternatives (such as cost-benefit, net present value, sustainability, time to market, etc.) In addition to these business criteria, one also wants to use ethical criteria (Slide 3) to evaluate the decision. 4. Estimate Probabilities In determining which decision-making alternative to choose, you will have to weigh the results of the different decision-making criteria and estimate the likelihood that anticipated results may, or may not, occur. 5. Calculate the Expected Values and Make a Decision Compare the business criteria outcomes with the ethical criteria outcomes. For example, the dollar cost-benefit analysis (business criteria) may be very positive, while the effects 1
2 on certain stakeholders such as employees or the community may be negative. One alternative may have the greatest financial benefit, while another may seem to be the most ethical. The challenge is to find the alternative that produces the most business value in an ethical way. 6. Justify the Course of Action Chosen Propose a convincing business and ethical decision. A decision maker must be able to explain to others that he/she has weighed the ethical issues involved and have made the most ethical decision possible. The decision maker also must explain to others that he/ she has followed a process that is as ethical as possible. PART 2 - APPLY ETHICAL EVALUATION CRITERIA SLIDE 3 KEY QUESTIONS CONCERNING DECISION MAKING WHEN ETHICS ARE IN PLAY This slide presents some key ethics-driven questions that must be addressed when decisions involving ethics are being made. These questions should be asked in step 3 of the traditional decision-making process evaluate alternative courses of action. Which alternative respects the rights and dignity of the stakeholders and can be universally applied? For each decision alternative, identify the ramifications if everyone were to follow the principle that underlies that alternative. For each decision alternative, determine if you are respecting the stakeholders and not treating them merely as objects. Which alternative will produce the most good and the least harm? For each alternative, identify the cost/benefits. Weigh the cost-benefits of each alternative to each stakeholder and determine if there is a solution that promotes the greatest good for the all of people. If there is no alternative that results only in good and no harm, choose the alternative that produces the most benefits and causes the least harm to the stakeholders. Do any of the alternatives violate a conventional ethical rule? These are the types of rules that we find in many great religious traditions, such as rules against killing, stealing, and lying. Others are more local and particular to specific cultures such as rules about proper dress, relations between the sexes, respect for established authority, and so on. In evaluating alternatives, you also want to consider if any of the alternatives are illegal. Determining that an alternative is illegal should lead to its rejection. Which alternative can you personally live with? For each alternative: 1. Will adopting this decision allow you to be at peace with yourself and develop your character in a way that will improve your relationships with others? 2. How would you feel when you share your decision with your most respected mentors, family members, or friends? 3. How would you feel if your actions were reported on the front page of The Wall Street Journal? 2
3 SLIDE 4 ADDITIONAL THOUGHTS When identifying stakeholders think about owners, managers, customers, employees, suppliers, different aspects of the community, the government, the natural environment, and of course stockholders. Try to think as broadly as you can about possible stakeholders as you may also need to include future generations and people who are one step removed from the immediate stakeholders. Determine the relative level of importance of different stakeholders. In thinking about consequences, you should focus on those consequences that have a particularly high probability of occurring. In thinking about consequences make sure you look at both long-term and short-term consequences as well as real versus symbolic consequences (what message does your action send). Finally, use your analysis to determine which decision alternative will produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people. SLIDE 5 WHAT IS YOUR ETHICS CONFIDENCE? Here are some questions that individuals can ask to check the confidence they have that they have made an ethical decision. 1. Have I/we thought broadly about the ethical issues associated with the decision I/we have made? 2. Have I/we involved those who might have some right to input or involvement in the decision I/we have made? 3. Does my/our decision respect the rights and dignity of stakeholders? (which?) 4. Does this decision product the most good and the least harm to stakeholders? (which?) 5. Does the decision I/we have made uphold moral rules by which I/we live? 6. Can I/we live with this decision in the long-run? 7. Does the decision I/we have made allow for growth in my/our character? PART 3 BIASES THAT ARE BROUGHT TO THE ETHICS DECISION-MAKING TABLE Slide 6 - BIASES Throughout the decision-making process described above, be aware of the often subtle influences that may affect decision making. These subtleties are called biases; preferences or inclinations that may inhibit impartial judgment. Here are some that may affect individual perceptions and/or decisions: Obedience to Authority Be careful of the temptation to rationalize decisions based on the notion of just following orders. Many wrongs have been carried out using that excuse. If an action is inherently wrong or unethical, this justification does not make the action ethical or right. Social Proof Ask students if, when they were younger, they pleaded with parents to do something based on the argument that, Everyone else is doing it. Peer pressure can be great in all social situations including the workplace. People are more likely to undertake unethical actions in the workplace and elsewhere if peers are engaging in similar behavior. 3
4 False Consensus Effect This is the tendency to believe that other people think the same way that we do. Honest people have a tendency to believe that those they interact with are also honest. This belief is often wrong. Employees may get involved in some wrongdoing themselves but may not fully recognize the ethical implications of their acts. Over-optimism People are optimistic so much so that they often hold irrational beliefs. Even though the divorce rate is at 50%, newlyweds tend to rate their own chances of divorce at 0%. Irrational optimism can serve as a basis for unethical decisions. Over-optimism can lead one to minimize potential bad effects or to overestimate positive effects from a course of action. Overconfidence Related to over-optimism, overconfidence in one s own ethical status can lead people to accept their own decisions without any serious moral reflection. Psychological studies indicate that people tend to rate themselves as well above average in most traits, including honesty. Peoples confidence in themselves translates into confidence in the ethical correctness of their acts and judgments. Self-Serving Bias The most important and most frequently occurring bias is the belief in deserved rewards for one s self. The belief that one deserves the rewards that can result from a dubious act is often unconscious. Research on self-serving bias suggests that a great number of ethical breaches in business situations arise from the self-serving bias. The self-serving bias also affects, often unconsciously, information that individuals may seek to confirm evidence causing them to search out information that confirms rather than disconfirms evidence. This bias also affects how individuals may remember information. People are more likely to recall evidence that supports their point of view than evidence that opposes it. People involved in negotiations tend to remember information that supports their bargaining position more than information that undermines it. Framing The context used to present an idea greatly affects perception. For example, people s risk preferences change dramatically depending on whether an option is framed in terms of potential loss or potential gain. As a simple example of the impact of framing, people would rather buy potato chips labeled 75% fat free than identical chips labeled 25% fat. The self-serving bias may lead a person to frame decisions or alternatives in such a way as to lead to problematic conclusions. For example, instead of prosecuting legal cases on the basis of justice and fairness, some defense attorneys and prosecutors often keep score of their wins and losses. If a CEO frames his or her responsibility only in terms of maximizing shareholder value, we should not be surprised to find that those officers and directors are more likely to neglect such traits as honesty, personal integrity, and commitment to the mutual benefit of all the participants in the corporate enterprise. Process People sometimes make different decisions depending upon whether they are presented with a particular big decision, or a series of incremental decisions leading to the same point. People involved in unethical business decisions more often slide down a slippery slope incrementally and in tandem with their peers in an organization. This often occurs when individuals succumb to the little white lie syndrome telling the first lie is hard, the next a little easier, and so on. 4
5 Sunk Costs People tend to stick by decisions into which they have sunk significant costs monetary or otherwise. Sunk costs can lead to an escalating commitment. Managers of companies that have spent considerable resources on a particular product will have great difficulty scrapping that product when evidence of safety problems surface. The key point is that as individuals become used to having their job, their salary, and their perquisites, their decision-making processes is affected more substantially than they realize. The Tangible and the Abstract Decision-making considerations that are more removed from an individual in terms of time and space are frequently considered less important than by more vivid, tangible, and current factors. Designers and marketers of products with safety concerns find it extremely difficult to pull a product out of the market (even a Ford Pinto or Vioxx) and lay off employees working on the product and damage the company s profits in the shortterm when the potential injuries are hypothetical, temporally-distant, and visited upon mere statistical victims. Time-Delay Traps When an action has both short-term and long-term consequences, the former (shortterm) are much easier for people to consider. People subject to this time-delay trap in decision making often prefer immediate to delayed gratification. Illegally discarding and dumping pollutants into the environment is often a short-term solution of significantly less cost financially to companies, but with greater long-term damaging effects. Loss Aversion People detest losses more than they enjoy gains; about twice as much. For example, companies may cover up damning evidence about unsafe products after safety problems have been detected (e.g., Merck and the Vioxx recall). 5
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