Self-determined Motivation, Sportspersonship, and Sport Orientation: a Mediational Analysis

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1 Available online at ScienceDirect Procedia - Social and Behavioral Scienc es 89 ( 2013 ) nd Cyprus International Conference on Educational Research, (CY-ICER 2013) Self-determined Motivation, Sportspersonship, and Sport Orientation: a Mediational Analysis Lucia Monacis a *, Omar Estrada b, Maria Sinatra c, Giancarlo Tanucci d, Valeria de Palo e a b Department of Experimental Psychology, Camilo José Cela, Sevilla, 41018, Spain c Abstract Our study proposed a path model of sportsperson ship using self-determined motivation as mediating variable and sport orientations as distal determinants. 166 competitive level athletes divided into two groups according to the type of sport (individual and team sports) completed a questionnaire composed of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire, the Sport Motivation Scale, the Multidimensional Sport Orientation Scale, and the socio-graphic section. Anova analysis and path meditational model were examined. Results showed main effects of gender and type of sports on sport orientations, and the indirect effects of sport orientations on sportsperson ship, as well as the meditational role of self-determined sport motivation The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Selection Selection and/or and or peer-review peer-review under under responsibility responsibility of Prof. of Assoc. Dr. Huseyin Prof. Dr. Uzunboylu, Zehra Özçınar, Near East Ataturk University, Teacher Faculty Training of Education, Academy, North Cyprus. Keywords: Sportspersonship, self-determined sport motivation, sport orientation; 1. Introduction It has been recognized for centuries that sport activity can contribute to the development of positive character traits, well-being, cooperation, resilience, and specific skills (Shields, & Bredemeier, 2007, 2008), following the maxim Sport builds character. However, if its educational value in any environment is well supported, opponents to competitive sport also mount a strong argument. According to them, there should be no guarantee that a sportsperson, maximizing the potential of competition to foster excellence and to win, will develop into a morally responsible, empathetic, respectful, and well balanced individual (Kohn, 1992). In fact, the emphasis on victory could invite inappropriate behaviours like cheating, overly aggressive or taking drugs for better performances (Barez, 2008; Doty, 2006) and higher gain, so that the sportsmanship could be declined by these bad influences. * Corresponding author: Lucia Monacis. Tel.: address: l.monacis@unifg.it The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Prof. Dr. Huseyin Uzunboylu, Near East University, Faculty of Education, Cyprus doi: /j.sbspro

2 462 Lucia Monacis et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 89 ( 2013 ) That is why one of the most important goals which coaches and educators should pursue, is the creation of environments in the playing fields that support ideal notion of ethics, moral reasoning, character, and sportsmanship (Stoner, 2004) or, more gender-neutrally, sportsperson ship. In recent years, psychologists from various approaches have advocated the need for studying sportsperson ship and assessing it using inventories (e.g., Bredemeier, & Shields, 1998; Morgan, Meier, & Schneider, 2001). It can be thought both as a set of attitudes or values and as a behavior that gives expression to them (Shields, & Bredemeier, 2008, p. 502). In the current research, the socio-psychological model was considered the best way of referring to sportsperson ship. According to Vallerand and colleagues (1996, 1997), it can be categorized in a fivefold typology. The first two orientations consist in showing concern and respect for rules and officials, as well as for the opponent, the third concerns the acceptance of the implicit social conventions, the fourth the quality of personal commitment to sport, and the fifth a negative approach to sport participation, i.e., a win at all costs mindset. Nowadays, due to the decline of those ethical values that are expressed through the so-called fair play, which sport should be the holder of, sport psychology has begun to wonder about what could be and should be defined as those motivational processes that support the positive involvement in the sport. To this purpose, various studies have been carried on the topic of motivation in terms of participation motivation, achievement motivation, competition motivation, internal/external motivation. All these constructs could be related to the concept of sportsperson ship. With regard to the first and the second motivation, those researchers who focused on achievement, generally used Atkinson s (1974) cognitive framework based on the concept of need for achievement (e.g., Wong, & Bridges, 1995) and Harter s competence motivation theory (Harter, 1981), whilst researchers in the domain of participation motivation dealt with a wide spectrum of sports without a specific theoretical background (Gill, Gross, & Huddleston, 1983). Furthermore, achievement motivation included two different orientations, i.e., goal and competitive orientation, the former defined by Nicholls (1989) and Duda (1992; Duda, & Hall, 2001) as task and/or ego orientation and the latter referred to competition including three dimensions, win, goal, and competitiveness. For Duda, the two dimensions of task/ego orientation could be linked to the three dimensions of competitive sport orientation, which the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) is composed of (Gill, 1993). In details, the goals scale reflects the task orientation, the win and competitiveness scales reflect the ego orientation, although the SOQ competitiveness items suggest that they can refer to either competition with others, which implies an ego orientation, or competition with internal goals or standard, which may imply a task orientation. Of particular relevance to our research was Vallerand and Losier s statement (1994) that self-determined sport motivation represented a primary determinant of sportsperson ship orientation, i.e., athletes intrinsically motivated toward sport participation were also more respectful and more concerned about the social features of sporting environments than extrinsically motivated individuals. In addition, recent findings showed that prosaically behavior and high levels of sportsperson ship would be directly predicted by a task-orientation, and an ego-orientation would predict antisocial behavior (Lemyre, Roberts, & Ommundsen, 2002; Kavussanu, 2007; Lee et al., 2008). Our objective, therefore, was to propose a model allowing distinct predictors of sportsperson ship using selfdetermined motivation as a mediating variable and competitiveness as a distal determinant. The main hypotheses were: a. Sport orientations, i.e., competitiveness, win orientation, and goal orientation, had a direct effect on selfdetermined sport motivation and an indirect effect on sportsperson ship; b. Self-determined sport motivation had a direct effect on sportsperson ship. Finally, we expected differences in gender, age, and types of sport, i.e., males, younger athletes, and sportspeople in individual sports obtained higher scores on competitiveness and win orientation. 2. Methods 2.1. Sample The sample consisted of 166 competitive level athletes (104 males, 62 female; M age = 23,23, SD = 9,97). They were divided into two groups according to the type of sport: individual sports (N = 53) and team sports (N = 113).

3 Lucia Monacis et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 89 ( 2013 ) Procedure Participants voluntarily completed a questionnaire designed to investigate sport motivation, sportspersonship and sport orientation. Questionnaire completion took place on site and before the beginning of their workout. Anonymity and confidentiality were clearly stressed through verbal and written instructions. Informed consent was obtained prior to having participants provide socio-demographic information and complete the scales Measures Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ). The SOQ is a 25-item scale consisting of three subscales designed to assess the three dimensions of sport orientation: competitiveness, win orientation, and goal orientation (Gill, & Deeter, 1988). The first subscale includes 13 questions measuring the sportsperson s feelings towards their competition with others, i.e. enjoyment of and desire to strive for success in competition (Competitiveness). The second subscale is made of six questions which assess the sportsperson s feelings towards attaining ideal success in competition and focus on interpersonal comparison and winning (Win orientation). Lastly, the third subscale is comprised of six questions measuring the sportsperson s feeling toward their own ideal sport performance, i.e. focus on personal performance standards (Goal orientation). The statements are rated on 5-point Likert scales anchored by 1 ( Strongly disagree ) and 5 ( Strongly agree ). The scale has demonstrated high internal consistency with Cronbach s alpha of.88. In this study it was used the original back-translated version of the scale. Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). Self-determined sport motivation was estimated using the back-translated version of the Sport Motivation Scale (Pelletier et al., 1995). It measures seven type of motivation according to Deci and Ryan s self-determination theory (1985, 2000): three types of Intrinsic Motivation (to Know, to Accomplish Things, and to Experience Stimulation), three types of Extrinsic Motivation (External Regulation, Introjection, and Identification), and amotivation. The scale consist of 28 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (from strongly disagree to strongly agree ) and the level of internal consistency was high with Cronbach s alpha of.90. For sake of parsimony, and in line with past research (e.g., Grolnick, Deci, & Ryan, 1987; Ryan, & Connell, 1989; Vallerand, & Bissonnette, 1992; Vallerand, Pelletier, & Koestner, 2008), mean score on the SMS subscales were combined into a composite index of self-determined motivation obtained by weighting each of the above mentioned types of motivation according to its position on the self-determination continuum (Deci, & Ryan, 1985), and then summing the products. In particular, the mean scores were combined as follows: (2 x (IM to know + IM to accomplish things + IM to experience stimulation)/3 + (EM Identified regulation)) ((EM Introjected Regulation + EM External Regulation)/2 + (2 x Amotivation)). Higher positive scores on this index reflect higher self-determined sport motivation, while higher negative scores show low levels of self-determined motivation.(vallerand, & Rousseau, 2001). Multidimensional Sport Orientation Scale (MSOS). The Multidimensional Sport Orientation Scale (Vallerand et al., 1997) was used to measure the sportspersonship orientations. The scale is comprised of 25 items rated on a 5- point Likert scale (from does not correspond at all to me to corresponds exactly to me ) and assess the five dimensions of sportsperson ship according to Vallerand s approach: a) concern and respect for rules and officials, b) concern and respect for one s opponent, c) concern and respect for social conventions in sport, d) concern and respect for one s full commitment towards sport participation, and e) negative approach towards one s sport participation. The level of internal consistency was high with Cronbach s alpha of.87. In line with prior research (Vallerand, & Losier, 1994), a composite index of sportsperson ship calculated by reversing the scores of the negative approach subscale, averaging scores on each of the five subscales, and then adding those means. Higher scores on this index reflect firmer attitudes of concern and respect for rules and officials, opponents, social conventions, as well as stronger commitment towards one s sport participation (Vallerand, & Losier, 1994; Chantal, & Bernache-Assollant, 2003).

4 464 Lucia Monacis et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 89 ( 2013 ) Analysis and results 000 The main purpose of the research was to test the conceptual relationships between self-determined sport motivation, sport orientations, and sportsperson ship. To this aim, a direct model and a mediation model were examined. Data were analyzed using SPSS for Windows and Amos Preliminary Analyses Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine differences in sport orientations, motivation, and sportsperson ship between younger and older players, males and females, and individual and team sports. As the assumption of homogeneity of covariance matrices was violated (Box s M = 234,876, p <.000), the separated one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was calculated for each group. Results revealed a significant effect of gender only on win orientation, F (1/165) = 6,43, p <.05, and type of sport on both competitiveness, F (1/165) = 7,106, p <.01, and win orientation, F (1/165) = 23,646, p <.001. As for gender, men seemed to be more win oriented (μ = 18,46) than women (μ = 16,29). With regard to the type of sport, sportspeople in individual sports were more win oriented (μ = 20,45) and competitive (μ = 28,60) than sportspeople in team sports (μ (win orientation) = 16,34 and μ (competitiveness) = 25,20). No significant age effect emerged Correlation analysis The relationship between sport orientation, motivation, and sportsperson ship was preliminary assessed by performing Pearson s bivariate correlations. Results indicated that: a. competitiveness was negatively correlated with both self-determined sport motivation (r = -.201, p <.01) and respect and concern for one s commitment towards sport participation (r = -.281, p <.01); b. win orientation was positively correlated with respect and concern for social conventions (r =.233, p <.01) and respect and concern for one s opponent (r =.167, p <.01); c. goal orientation was negatively correlated with self-determined sport motivation (r = -.201, p <.01), respect and concern for one s full commitment towards sport participation (r = -.275, p <.01), and negative approach towards one s sport participation; d. self-determined sport motivation was positively correlated with respect and concern for one s full commitment towards sport participation (r =.350, p <.01) and negatively with negative approach towards one s sport participation (r = -.242, p <.01). Table 1. Correlations Mean SD Competitiveness 26,29 7, Win orientation 17,65 5,423,500 ** - 3. Goal orientation 12,08 3,538,541 **,207 ** - 4. Self-determ. sport motivation 13,05 12,181 -,201 **,067 -,201 ** - 5. Respect for social conventions 19,30 4,376,090,233 ** -,133, Resp. rules and officials 19,36 3,813,037,108 -,111,100,625 ** - 7. Resp. one s full commit. 20,10 3,549 -,281 ** -,119 -,275 **,350 **,508 **,486 ** - toward particip. 8. Respect for opponent 15,94 4,907,116,167 * -,078 -,034,589 **,539 **,364 ** - 9. Negative approach 13,34 4,067 -,034 -,153 * -,171 * -,242 **,251 **,069,103,415 ** - ** p <.01; * p <.05

5 Lucia Monacis et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 89 ( 2013 ) Structural analysis Structural analyses were performed in order to test the conceptual relationships between competitive orientation, self-determined motivation, and sportsperson ship. The hypothesized model included one dependent variable (sportsperson ship orientations), one mediating variable (self-determined sport motivation), and the three dimensions of competitive orientation (competitiveness, goal, and win orientation) as independent variable. In the figure 1 the regression weights values obtained by the analysis of model are reported. The analysis involved a total of 12 parameters to be estimated and the maximum likelihood estimator was used to test the adequacy of the hypothesized model. In this study, SEM results showed adequate fit indices in regard to the hypothesized model: the Chi square value was not significant (χ 2 = 5,399, p >.05), Incremental Fit Index (IFI) value, which is appropriate for relatively small sample size like ours and indicates an estimation of the relative improvement per degree of freedom of the target model over a baseline model, was.982; the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) value was.981. The standardized root mean square residual (RMSR) was low.042. These results suggested a good correspondence between given data set and the hypothesized model. With regard to the structural relationships, the analyses revealed that self-determined sport motivation was positively predicted by win orientation (β =.21, R 2 =.086, p <.05) and negatively by competitiveness (β = -.25, R 2 =.086, p <.05), and that sportsperson ship was positively predicted by self-determined sport motivation (β = 21, R 2 =.044, p <.01). Figure 1. Mediational path model. Path coefficients are standardized regression coefficients (** p <.01; * p <.05). 4. Discussion and conclusion The main aim of this study was to propose a path model in which sportsperson ship was directly predicted by self-determined sport motivation and indirectly by sport orientations. In line with prior research (Vallerand & Losier, 1994), data revealed a positive relationship between self-determined sport motivation and sportsperson ship orientations. Therefore, it seems that dominant feelings of autonomy and pleasure towards sport participation may foster a strong inclination to adopt sportsperson like behaviors within competitive settings.

6 466 Lucia Monacis et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 89 ( 2013 ) In addition, results showed that goal orientation did not predict motivation. Conversely, as for win and competitiveness orientation, findings indicated a positive relationship with the motivational construct: competitiveness seems to negatively predict self-determined motivation, i.e., sport participation of those athletes oriented both to the enjoyment of activity and to the desire to strive for success in competition, is characterized by dominant feelings of constraints and instrumentality. Consequently, sport becomes a means to some end, other than the pleasure of participation per se. With regard to win orientation, contrary to what is stated in the literature, findings showed that this orientation predicted positively self-determination motivation: it seems that win oriented athletes are more self-determined motivated. This relationship could be due to the value of winning inherent in competitive contexts. In other words, the win orientation would predict a self-determined motivation characterized by the pleasure of winning, a behavior extrinsically motivated which is more akin to the identified motivation. According to this kind of motivation, the sport activity is performed for extrinsic reasons (e.g., to achieve personal goals and then for winning), although it is internally regulated and self-determined. The examination of ANOVA analysis showed gender differences only on win orientation in line with previous research (Gill, 1988; Vealey, 1988): males obtained higher scores. Conversely, no significant differences emerged on goal orientation. However, it should be pointed up that the unequal number of males and females could influence this result. As for the type of sport, findings confirmed that sportspeople in individual sports are more competitive and win oriented than those in team sports, although the former are numerically lower than the latter (Gill, & Dzewaltowski, 1988; Wakayama, Watanabe, & Inomata, 2002; Gareth, Ken, & Peters, 2006). Some limitations need to be discussed. The first one dealt with sample size; future replication research should strive to employ larger sample of both male and female athletes recruited from different sport disciplines, competitive levels, and age groups in order to provide for a more stringent examination of the generalizability of our findings. Second, limitations also pertain to the measurement issue: even if the self-report scales we used are generally considered as valid and reliable (Shields, & Bredemeier, 2001; Vallerand, & Rousseau, 2001, Gill, & Deeter, 1988), they are still subject to response bias. In closing, the results of this study are to be considered cautiously for what they are: preliminary evidence that needs for replication. However, this meditational model provides new research lines to investigate the sportsperson ship orientations in combination with sport motivation and orientation, and others construct. Moreover, this model based on self-determined sport motivation as mediator between sportsperson ship and sport orientations and if further validated with a larger sample could be a base for educational approaches especially for young sports people. References Atkinson, J. W. (1974). The mainstream of achievement-oriented activity. In J. W. Atkinson, & J. O. Raynor (Eds.), Motivation and achievement (pp ).New York: Halstead. Barez, A. (2008). Sport as a school of life: The mental and physical characteristics, developmental objectives and coaching methods of youth sports. International Labour Organization Report. Geneva: ILO. Bredemeier, B., & Shields, D. L. (1998). 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7 Lucia Monacis et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 89 ( 2013 ) Gill, D. L. (1993). Competitiveness and competitive orientation in sport. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphey, & L. K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of research on sport psychology (pp ). New York: Macmillan. Gill, D. L., & Deeter, T. E. (1988). Development of the sport orientation questionnaire. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59 (3), Gill, D. L. & Dzewaltowski, D. A. (1988). Competitive orientations among intercollegiate athletes: Is winning the only thing? The Sport Psychologist, 2, Gill, D. L., Gross, J. B., & Huddleston, S. (1983). Participation motivation in youth sports. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 14, Grolnick, W. S., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1997). Internalization within the family: The self-determination theory perspective. In J. E. Grusec & L. Kuczynski (Eds.), Parenting and children's internalization of values: A handbook of contemporary theory (pp ). New York: Wiley. Harter, S. (1981). Effectance motivation reconsidered: toward a developmental model. Human Development, 21, Kavussanu, M. (2007). Morality in sport. In S. Jowett & D. E. Lavallee (Eds.), Social psychology in sport (pp ). Champaign IL: Human Kinetics. Kohn, A. (1992). No Contest. The Case Against Competition (2 nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Lee, M. J., Whitehead, J., Ntoumanis, N., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2008). Relationships between values, achievement orientations, and attitudes in youth sport. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30, Lemyre, P. N., Roberts, G. C., & Ommundsen, Y. (2002). Achievement goal orientations, perceived ability, and sportspersonship in youth soccer. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, Morgan, W. J., Meier, K. V., & Schneider, A. J. (Eds.) (2001). Ethics in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Nicholls, J. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., Tuson, K. M., Brière, N. M., & Blais, M. R. (1995). Toward a New Measure of Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation, and Amotivation in Sports: The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, Shields, D. L. & Bredemeier, B. (2001). Moral development and behavior in sport. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hauseblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (2 nd ed., pp ). New York: Wiley & Sons Shields, D. L., & Bredemeier, B. (2007). Advances in sport morality research. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3 rd ed., pp ). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Shields, D. L., & Bredemeier, B. (2008). Sport and the development of character. In L. Nucci & D. Narvaez, Handbook of moral and character education (pp ). New York: Routledge. Stoner, M. E. (2004). Building ethics, character and sportsmanship in today s athletes. PSAHPERD, Vallerand, R. J, & Bissonnette, R. (1992). Intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational styles as predictors of behavior: A prospective study. Journal of Personality, 60, Vallerand, R. J., Brière, N. M., Blanchard, C., & Provencher, P. (1997). Development and validation of the multidimensional sportspersonship orientations scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19, Vallerand, R. J., Deshaies, P., Cuerrier, J. P., Brière, N. M., & Pelletier, L. G. (1996). Toward a multidimensional definition of sportsmanship. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 8, Vallerand, R. J., & Losier, G. F. (1994). Self-determined motivation and sportsmanship orientations: An assessment of their temporal relationship. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 16, Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Koestner, R. (2008). Reflections on self-determination theory. Canadian Psychology, 49, Vallerand, R. J., & Rousseau, F. L. (2001). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport and exercise: A review using the hierarcical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (2 nd ed., pp ). New York: Wiley & Sons. Vealey, R. S. (1988). Sport-confidence and competitive orientation: an addendum on scoring procedures and gender differences. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 10, Wakayama, H., Watanabe, E., & Inomata, K. (2002). Exploratory factor analysis of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire and the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire in a Japanese sport setting. Perceptual Motor Skills, 95, Wong, E. H., & Bridges, L. J. (1995). A model of motivational orientation for youth sport: some preliminary work. Adolescence, 30,

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