Personality. Personality 12/13/2010. Personality

Transcription

1 Personality Personality Enduring patterns of thought, feeling, motivation and behavior that are expressed in different circumstances Includes Internal processes Thoughts and emotions that guide behavior Reputation The manner in which a person acts across a variety of situations Personality Dual focus for personality psychologists: Structure of personality How we resemble e one another Individual differences What makes us unique 1

2 Personality Theories Three questions to address: Basic Elements of Personality Stability of Personality Genetic contribution to personality Psychodynamic Theories Sigmund Freud s theory of psychodynamics Basic assumption: If symptom has no physiological py origin and patient cannot consciously control it, then opposing conscious will must be unconscious counter-will Strength and direction of conscious versus unconscious will predict actions Psychodynamic Theories Psychodynamics: psychological forces such as wishes, fears, and intentions have direction and intensity Similar to dynamics among physical forces Explored through the use of case studies Clinical observations and lab research today supports some of psychodynamic theory 2

3 Psychodynamic Theories Topographic Model: Conscious Mental processes we are aware of Rational and goal oriented Desire to have a pizza for dinner Pre-Conscious Not conscious but can be recalled at any time The make and color of your first car Unconscious Mental processes we cannot draw into conscious awareness What drives you to chew your fingernails Conflict and Ambivalence Ambivalence Conflicting feelings or motives Those we love also cause us the most pain Conflict Tension between opposing forces Desire to lose weight & join friends for ice cream Compromise Formations Maximize fulfillment of conflicting motives Often requires distorted view of self Freud s Drive Model Freud proposed two basic drives (instincts) Libido Sexual intercourse, pleasure e seeking, sensuality sua and love Aggression Physical and emotional domination of others 3

4 Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud saw development of libido as key to personality development Each stage focuses on erogenous zone the part of the body generating sexual pleasure Psychosexual Stages of Development Oral Stage (0-18 months) Children explore the world through their mouths Mouth provides food, social connection to mother Develop wishes, expectations about dependence Fixation leads to clingy dependence and need for approval from others Nail biting and thumb sucking are fixated behaviors Psychosexual Stages of Development Anal Stage (roughly ages 2-3) Characterized by conflicts over compliance Major developmental issue is toilet training Develop expectations about control over self Fixation leads to either overly orderly and punctual behavior or messy noncompliance 4

5 Psychosexual Stages of Development Phallic Stage (roughly ages 4-6) Characterized by pleasure with exploring genitals Children learn differences between boys and girls Identifies with same-sex parent Internalizes motives beliefs, and ideals Identification can be expressed as wanting to replace same sex parent, as with Oedipus complex Identification with same sex parent and desire for pleasure with opposite sex parent leads to unconscious anxiety Resolve by modeling same sex parent behavior Psychosexual Stages of Development Latency Stage (roughly ages 7-11) Children repress sexual impulses and identify with same-sex parent Children learn to channel drives into socially acceptable tbl behavior bh Fixation in latency stage leads to asexual behavior Psychosexual Stages of Development Genital Stage (roughly ages 12 and beyond) Conscious sexuality returns Genital sex becomes goal of sexual activity People become capable of mature, adult relationships 5

6 Freud s Structural Model Later model explains conflicts that cause distress Id: What I want to do, now! Source of sexual and aggressive energy Primary process thinking (wishful, illogical) Superego: What I ought to do Conscious and source of ideals Parental and societal voice within person Ego: Balances between id & superego Weighs desire, reality and morality Secondary process thinking: rational, logical and goal oriented If weak ego, either Id or Superego controls behavior Freud s Defense Mechanisms Defense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes aimed at protecting from experiencing unpleasant emotions, especially anxiety How people regulate emotions and deal with conflicts Repression Keep thoughts or memories out of awareness You are unaware if you are repressing something Denial Consciously choose to ignore something You are aware of a potential problem but ignore it My partner would never cheat on me Freud s Defense Mechanisms Projection Attributing one s own unacknowledged feelings or impulses to others Keeping a thought out of awareness tends to keep it very active at an implicit level He seems very greedy, don t you think? Reaction Formation We turn unacceptable feelings or impulses into their opposites Having unconscious threatening desire for a homosexual encounter might cause a person to consciously preach against homosexuality 6

7 Freud s Defense Mechanisms Sublimation Converting sexual or aggressive impulses into socially acceptable activities Aggression might be channeled into competitive sports Rationalization i We explain away actions in a seemingly logical way to avoid uncomfortable feelings I am glad I didn t get a promotion as I don t want to relocate Passive Aggression Indirect expression of anger towards others Conscious failure to take action as a means of exerting control Other Psychosocial Theories Object Relations Theories behavioral patterns in intimate relationships and the motivational, cognitive, and affective processes that produce them Focus on representations of self, significant others, and relationships Interpersonal problems arise from maladaptive interpersonal patterns learned early in life Development refers to gradual approach to mature relations with others Other Psychosocial Theories Relational Theories An outgrowth of object relations theory Need for relatedness is central motive for humans People will distort personalities to maintain ties to others Patterns of relatedness are learned early in life 7

8 Measuring the Unconscious Life History Methodology Case study of a given individual s life experiences in context Focus on key events that may have shaped a person s personality Projective Tests Projective tests involve participants interpreting ambiguous stimuli When faced with an undefined stimulus people will project their own thoughts, feelings, and wishes onto it Rorschach Inkblot Test Participants view a series of cards with ink blots Subject tells tester what each inkblot resembles 8

9 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Subject is asked to make up a story about each of a series of ambiguous drawings Most drawings used in the TAT involve two or more people interacting Assumes that subject will create stories reflecting their own wishes and fears Validity of Projective Tests For some purposes, projective tests are highly valid Helpful in distinguishing people with certain disorders Projective tests are useful to test implicit processes, especially those with strong emotional elements Contributions of Psychodynamic Theory 1. Importance of unconscious cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes 2. Importance of ambivalence, conflict, and compromise 3. Importance of childhood experiences in shaping adult interpersonal patterns 4. Importance of mental representations of the self, others, and relationships 5. Development of capacity to regulate impulses and to shift from an immature state in infancy to interdependent interpersonal stance in adulthood 9

10 Limitations of Psychodynamic Theory 1. Not based in sound scientific investigation 2. Some Freudian theories such as penis envy and drive theory do not find modern empirical support 3. Overemphasis on childhood experiences rather than adult learning and growth 4. Rejection of Freud led to insufficient testing of theoretical predictions Cognitive-Social Theories Incorporates learning, beliefs, expectations and information processing Suggests that learning is the basis of personality People s actions are interaction between situational requirements and person s learned tendency toward behaviors in particular situations Actions reflect knowledge of world and expectations about result of actions Cognitive-Social Theories Behavior is dependent upon: Encoding a situation as relevant to goals Sufficient personal meaning to initiate goal behavior Belief that actions can impact the situation Belief in having enough skill to do the desired task 10

11 Cognitive-Social Theories Encoding is based on: Personal Constructs Mental representations of people, places, things, events How people understand significant elements Not always available to consciousness Personal value The importance individuals attach to various stimuli and to the outcomes they expect as a result of their behavior We focus on behaviors and situations that we perceive as relevant to our goals or life tasks Expectancies Actions are dependent upon behavior outcome expectancies & self-efficacy expectancies To successfully complete a task we must: Desire the expected outcome Believe we can achieve the expected outcome Competences The objective degree to which we actually possess a given skill set Varies widely across individuals Varies widely (by task) within an individual 11

12 Involves: Setting goals Self-Regulation Evaluating one s performance Adjusting behavior to achieve goals Cognitive-Social Theories Personality is problem solving effort of individual, based on self-efficacy, goals, selfregulation Cognitive-Social Theories Contributions: The role of thought and memory in personality Expectations and skills matter for behavior Very testable Limitations Emphasize rational aspects not irrational or emotional influences Assumes people are consciously aware of thoughts and desires 12

13 Trait Theories Traits involve emotional, cognitive, and behavioral tendencies that constitute underlying dimensions of personality Trait theorists narrow down myriad personality descriptors to the most frequently used categories Eysenck s Trait Theory Three Psychological Types Extroversion From shy to sociable, interactive, taking risks Neuroticism i From emotional stability to negative affect Psychoticism Tendencies towards aggression, egocentric, impulsive and antisocial Five Factor Model Most commonly used trait theory today Extroversion Agreeable Neuroticism C i i Conscientiousness Openness to experience 13

14 Situational Consistency Are traits consistent across different situations? Mishel argued that people are not always consistent. Why not? Principle of aggregation Suggests that personality refers to behavior across many situations but not all instances We can adjust to a given set of circumstances Many people are broadly consistency over time Evidence for temperament: genetic influence on personality, consistent from infancy through life Person-By-Situation Interactions Process by which personality dispositions are activated only under certain circumstances Personality operates through if-then statements, where if refers to situation and then refers to reaction based on personality If my friend yells at me then I will react in a given way This idea unites cognitive-social, trait, and psychodynamic theories to predict behavior Trait Theories Contributions Very testable Not committed to universal personality assumptions Re-energized study of personality 14

15 Trait Theories Limitations They rely on self-report that may not be accurate Everyday language and expectations of personality Factor analysis depends on quality of data entered Does not explain why person acts as they do May not be cross-culturally consistent Focus on how much personality, not how or why Humanistic Theories Focus on distinctly human aspects of personality Roger s person-centered approach Must understand a person s phenomenal world People construct their own meaning of events Fundamental tool is empathy: capacity to understand another person s experience cognitively and emotionally People have true self, but change into false self to obtain positive regard from others Primary motive is actualizing, which is desire to fulfill needs Existential Approaches Focus on each person s subjective existence, and on how the person comes to terms with basic issues such as meaning in life and mortality Suggests that we have no set nature or personality and must repeatedly create ourselves We find ourselves by making commitments even though such commitments have no intrinsic meaning 15

16 Existential Approaches Existential dread major problem we face Recognition that life has no absolute value or meaning Recognizes the reality of death Suggests that people try to deny death by committing ourselves to cultural beliefs and values Humanistic Theories Contributions Focus on how people look for meaning in life, especially after personal loss or cultural change Limitations Not a comprehensive theory of personality Not testable because of a rejection of empiricism Genetics and Personality Much of personality is inherited Usually tested through twin studies Heritability of personality estimated at 15-50% with rest of variance due to environment Genetic tendencies may trigger environmental responses, such as risk-taking leading to drug use Study of behavioral genetics sepa 16

17 Personality and Culture General personality traits are consistently found in all cultures Everyone tends to experience anxiety, joy, embarrassment, desire for positive regard At same, the most important aspects of personality may differ by culture. The concepts on personality we have studied in this chapter reflect our culture Personality and Culture Psychodynamic approach: Examine cultural phenomena such as myths, moral and religious beliefs to determine needs and conflicts of individuals Religious Holy Father equivalent to individual s father Culture pattern approach: Culture is an organized set of beliefs, rituals, and institutions that shape individuals to fit its patterns If culture stresses community and family, individual internalizes these values as important Personality and Culture Interactionist Approaches Personality is shaped by economic and cultural demands, and cultural and economic processes are created to fulfill psychological needs Societies with aggressive myths treat children more Societies with aggressive myths treat children more abusively, and those children grow to more hostile adults 17