Psychology in Your Life
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1 Sarah Grison Todd Heatherton Michael Gazzaniga Psychology in Your Life SECOND EDITION Chapter 6 Learning 2016 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 1
2 Humans are learning machines! Learning: A change in behavior, resulting from experience Learning is central to almost all areas of human existence Critical for survival by adapting behaviors for a particular environment Which sounds indicate potential danger? What foods are dangerous? When is it safe to sleep? 2
3 We Learn From Experience (1) Behaviorism: A formal learning theory from the early twentieth century John Watson: Focused on environment and associated effects as key determinants of learning The infant is a tabula rasa (Latin for blank slate ) B. F. Skinner: Designed animal experiments to discover basic rules of learning Behaviorists believed conditioning principles explained all behavior In reality, reinforcement explains only a certain amount of human behavior 3
4 We Learn in Three Ways (2) 1. Non-associative learning 2. Associative learning 3. Learning by watching others Non-associative learning A person learning Information about one external stimulus (e.g., a sight, smell, sound) Habituation: A decrease in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus Especially if the stimulus is not harmful or rewarding Sensitization: An increase in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus Heightened preparation in a situation with potential 4 harm or reward
5 We Learn in Three Ways (5) Associative learning Understanding how two or more pieces of information are related Classical conditioning: Learning that two stimuli go together Example: Music from scary movies elicits anxiousness when heard Operant conditioning: Learning that a behavior leads to a particular outcome Example: Studying leads to better grades 5
6 We Learn in Three Ways (6) Learning by watching others Observational learning When we learn or change a behavior after watching a person engage in that behavior Modeling Imitating a behavior seen in others Vicarious conditioning Learning to engage in a behavior, or not, after seeing others being rewarded, or punished, for performing that action 6
7 The Brain Changes During Learning Long-term potentiation (LTP) The strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons Evidence supports the idea that long-term potentiation is involved in learning and memory Hippocampus 7
8 Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related (3) Classical conditioning A type of learned response in which a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces a response Pavlov: Observed that dogs began to salivate as soon as they saw bowls of food Salivating at the sight of a bowl is not automatic Behavior acquired through learning by association 8
9 Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related (4) Pavlov s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning Step 1: Presenting food causes salivary reflex Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that elicits a response that is innate and does not require any prior learning (food) Unconditioned response (UR): A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex (salivation) Step 2: Clicking metronome is neutral stimulus Neutral stimulus: Anything seen or heard; must not be associated with the unconditioned response 9
10 Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related (6) Step 3 (conditioning trials): Start of learning The neutral stimulus is presented along with the unconditioned stimulus that reliably produces the unconditioned response Dog begins to associate US (food) and neutral stimulus (metronome) Step 4 (critical trials): Association learned Metronome alone (CS), without food, makes dog salivate (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS): A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place Conditioned response (CR): A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned 10
11 Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning (1) Animals adapt via conditioning Learning to predict outcomes leads to new adaptive behaviors Acquisition The gradual formation of an association between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli Strongest conditioning occurs when CS is presented slightly before US 11
12 Learning Varies in Classical Extinction Conditioning (3) A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus Animal learns the original association no longer present Spontaneous recovery A process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges after the conditioned stimulus is presented again Can occur after only one pairing following extinction Response will weaken if pairings do not continue 12
13 Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning (6) Generalization, discrimination, and second-order conditioning Stimulus generalization: Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Animals respond to variations in CS Stimulus discrimination: A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus 13
14 Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning (7) Second-order conditioning: Second CS becomes associated with first CS; elicits CR when presented alone Neither US nor original CS present Phobia A Classically Conditioned Fear Response Acquired fear that is very strong in comparison to threat of an object or of a situation 14
15 We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning (2) The Case of Little Albert Classical conditioning demonstrated in phobias: Watson showed Little Albert various neutral objects (e.g., white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, white wool) Paired rat (CS) and loud clanging noise (US) until rat alone produced fear (CR) Fear generalized to all similar stimuli 15
16 We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning (4) What happened to Little Albert? He was William Albert Barger, who died in 2007 at age 87 His relatives described him as easygoing, so he does not seem to have suffered long-term problems from being in the study Barger was described as disliking animals, especially dogs, throughout his life and would cover his ears when he heard barking 16
17 We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning (6) Counterconditioning Counterconditioning: Exposing subject to phobia during an enjoyable task Systematic desensitization: Type of counterconditioning involving exposure to feared stimulus while relaxing CS CR 1 (fear) connection replaced with CS CR 2 (relaxation) connection 17
18 Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning (1) Pavlov s belief: Any two events presented together would produce learned association By 1960s, data suggested that some conditioned stimuli more likely to produce learning than others Evolutionary influences Certain pairings more likely to be associated Conditioned taste aversions: Easy to produce with smell or taste cues Animals biologically prepared to fear stimuli or animals that are potentially harmful to them. 18
19 Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning (4) Cognitive Influences Through classical conditioning, animals predict events Robert Rescorla (1966) conducted one of the first studies that highlighted the role of cognition in learning Easier when CS precedes US rather than following US Easier when CS is more unexpected or surprising 19
20 6.3 How Do We Learn by Operant Conditioning? Operant conditioning A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that the action will be performed in the future Thorndike s experiments & the effects of action Thorndike s puzzle box: Challenged fooddeprived animals to find escape Trap door would open if animal performed specific action Animal quickly learned to repeat behavior to free itself and reach the food 20
21 Animals Learn Through the Outcomes of Their Actions (3) Thorndike s general theory of learning Law of effect Any behavior leading to a satisfying state of affairs likely to be repeated Any behavior leading to an annoying state of affairs less likely to reoccur 21
22 Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning (1) B. F. Skinner s learning theory based on the law of effect Animals operate on environments to produce effects Reinforcer: Stimulus occurs after response and increases likelihood of response reoccurring Consequences determine likelihood of behavior in future 22
23 Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning (2) 23
24 Shaping Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning (3) Operant-conditioning technique; reinforce behaviors increasingly similar to desired behavior 24
25 Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning (5) Reinforcers can be conditioned Reinforcers that are necessary for survival, such as food or water, are called primary reinforcers Events or objects that serve as reinforcers but do not satisfy biological needs are called secondary reinforcers Reinforcer potency Premack principle: More valued activity can reinforce performance of less valued activity Example: Eat your spinach and then you ll get dessert 25
26 Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning (1) Reinforcement and punishment have opposite effects on behavior Reinforcement: Behavior more likely to be repeated Punishment: Behavior less likely to occur again Positive and negative reinforcement Both positive and negative reinforcement increase likelihood of a given behavior 26
27 Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning (3) Positive reinforcement: The addition of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated Example: Feeding a rat after it has pressed a lever Negative reinforcement: The removal of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated Example: Taking a pill to get rid of a headache 27
28 Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning (5) Positive and negative punishment Both positive and negative punishment reduce likelihood that behavior will be repeated Positive punishment: The addition of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will recur Example: Electrical shock, speeding ticket Negative punishment: The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will recur Example: Loss of food, loss of privileges 28
29 Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning (7) Schedules of partial reinforcement Continuous reinforcement: Behavior reinforced each time it occurs Fast learning, uncommon in real world Partial reinforcement: Behavior is occasionally reinforced More common in real world 29
30 Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning (8) How well reinforcement works is sometimes based on how consistently it is given: four common schedules 1. Fixed schedule: Predictable basis 2. Variable schedule: Unpredictable basis 3. Interval schedule: Based on passage of time 4. Ratio schedule: Based on number of responses 30
31 Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning (9) Four schedules of partial reinforcement Fixed interval schedule (FI): Reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after a predetermined amount of time since the last reward. Example: paycheck Variable interval schedule (VI): Reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after an unpredictable and varying amount of time since the last reward. Example: Pop Quiz. More consistent response rates than fixed interval 31
32 Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning Fixed ratio schedule (FR): Reinforcing a particular behavior after that behavior has occurred a predetermined number of times Example: Paid by the completed task Often yields better response rates than fixed interval Variable ratio schedule (VR): Reinforcing a particular behavior after the behavior has occurred an unpredictable and varying number of times Example: Slot machine 32
33 Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning (13) Partial-reinforcement extinction effect: Behavior lasts longer under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement To condition behavior to persist: Use continuous reinforcement initially Slowly change to partial reinforcement 33
34 Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives (1) Parental punishment is ineffective To be effective, punishment must be Reasonable Unpleasant Applied immediately Clearly connected to the unwanted behavior 34
35 Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives (2) Punishment can cause potential confusion Wrongly applied after desirable behavior Leads to negative emotions (e.g., fear, anxiety) Fails to offset reinforcing aspects of the undesired behavior Reinforcement is a better way than punishment to teach desirable behavior 35
36 Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives (4) Behavior modification Behavior modification: Operant conditioning replaces unwanted behaviors with desirable behaviors Token economies: Type of behavior modification involving the opportunity to earn tokens (secondary reinforcers) for completing tasks and loss of tokens for behaving badly Tokens later traded for objects or privileges Gives participants sense of control 36
37 Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning (2) Dopamine activity affects reinforcement Dopamine has a biological influence on reinforcing value Drugs that block dopamine s effects disrupt operant conditioning Drugs that enhance dopamine activation increase reinforcing value of stimuli 37
38 Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning (3) Biology constrains reinforcement Some animal behaviors hardwired Difficult to learn behaviors counter to evolutionary adaptation Conditioning most effective when matched to animal s biological predispositions 38
39 Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning (4) Learning without reinforcement Tolman argued that reinforcement impacts performance more than knowledge acquisition Ran rats through complex mazes to obtain food Cognitive map: A visuospatial mental representation of an environment Tolman s study used three groups of rats learning a maze Group 1: No reinforcement Group 2: Reinforcement every trial Group 3: Reinforcement only after first 10 trials 39
40 Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning (6) 40
41 Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning (7) Latent learning: Learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement Insight learning: A sudden understanding of how to solve a problem after a period of either inaction or thinking about the problem 41
42 6.4 How Do We Learn by Watching Others? Behaviors we learn by watching others Mechanical skills, social etiquette, situational anxiety, attitudes about politics and religion Three ways we learn by watching 1. Observational learning 2. Modeling 3. Vicarious conditioning 42
43 Three Ways We Learn Through Watching (2) 1. Observational learning: The acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior Examples: Safe foods to eat, objects and situations to fear Powerful adaptive tool 43
44 Three Ways We Learn Through Watching (4) Bandura s research reveals learning through observation Observation of aggression: Bandura s Bobo doll study Group 1: Watched film of adult playing quietly with Bobo, an inflatable doll Group 2: Watched film of adult attacking Bobo Viewers of aggression were more than twice as likely to play aggressively 44
45 Three Ways We Learn Through Watching (5) 2. Modeling: The imitation of behavior through observational learning We are more likely to imitate actions of attractive, high-status models similar to ourselves 45
46 Three Ways We Learn Through Watching (8) 3. Vicarious conditioning: Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action Rewarded behavior more imitated Punished behavior less imitated 46
47 Watching Others Results in Cultural Transmission (2) Meme: Shared piece of cultural knowledge Similar to genes, selectively passed across generations, but can spread much faster Animals also show this kind of knowledge sharing 47
48 Biology Influences Observational Mirror neurons Learning Fire in your brain and other person s brain every time you watch the other engaging in an action Does not always lead to imitation Scientists are still debating mirror neurons function 48
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