THE MOTlVA'blQNS AND SELF-ESTEEM OF INTRAMURAL SPORTS WWTlClPANBS

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1 THE MOTlVA'blQNS AND SELF-ESTEEM OF INTRAMURAL SPORTS WWTlClPANBS MICHAEL A. KANTERS AND SCOlT FORESTER Facilitating positive experiences is a major goal of all campus recreational sports programs. Campus recreation activities provide participants with the opportunity to participate and compete in a variety of sports. Through participation and competition in a variety of activities individuals are provided the medium to improve their athletic, physical and social skills; positively contribute to their education and well-being (Snodgrass & Tinsley, 1990); and improve their overall selfesteem (Bird & Cripe, 1986; Davies, 1989). Despite a substantial body of literature revealing the benefits of sport participation, some intramural sports programs are poorly attended and others are faced with dwindling budgets as they struggle to demonstrate their relative importance on university and college campuses. Although previous attempts at establishing recreational sports as a significant element of student life have been successful, current fiscal pressures and changing student profiles require today's administrators to stay abreast of the changing needs of their clientele. Well-documented evidence supporting the relevance of programs and the benefits of participation will be essential when competing for limited financial resources, meeting increasing demands with static or reduced budgets and generating administrative and student support. A- review of past research indicates that-a number of questions are important considerations when planning recreation programs and justifying their existence: 1) Why do people participate and what do they expect to gain from their involvement? and 2) What do Michael A. Kanters, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor in Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management at North Carolina State University in Raleigh, North Carolina and Scoff Forester, B.S., is a graduate student in Parks & Recreation Administration at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana. people actually get from participation? (Iso-Ahola & Allen, 1982; Hirschman, 1 984; Snodgrass & Tinsley, 1990). The purpose of the present study was to examine these questions as they pertain to an intramural sports program. Specifically, participants in competitive and recreational volleyball leagues were examined for their leisure motivations and self-esteem... - recreation involvement contributes to the development of high sev-esteem... Many intramural sport programs offer an activity in both competitive and recreational leagues. Past research has suggested that competitive and recreational leagues serve different psychological functions (Iso-Ahola & Allen, 1982). In general, competitive play has been perceived as better suited for the needs of interpersonal diversion and control, positive interpersonal development and interpersonal competence than recreational leagues. In addition, Iso-Ahola and Allen (1 982) reported that males and females differed significantly in their reported motivation for participation. Whereas, males expected the above needs fulfilled in a competitive league, females had identical expectations for a recreational league thereby supporting the division of sport opportunities into competitive and recreational formats for both genders. However, it is likely that university student populations, as well as male and female personalities, have changed since this research was conducted. Thus, it seems prudent to re-examine the notion that participants in recreational and competitive sport leagues have different motivations for participation. While an understanding of what motivates recreational and competitive sport parlicipants is important for effective program management, documentation of the benefits of recreational sport are critical for maintaining program support and fostering growth and expansion. A tremendous diversity of outcomes has been attributed to sport. From one perspective it has been criticized for an over emphasis on winning, excessive violence and exploitation of individuals. Alternatively, sport has been praised for its contribution to personal health, enjoyment, growth and social harmony. Wankel and Berger (1990) argue that sport, like any activity, is neither good nor bad but has the potential for producing both positive and negative consequences. Substantial research evidence supports the association of physical, psychological and social benefits to sport involvement (Wankel & Berger, 1990). More recently, however, sport or recreation participation has been examined as an indirect contributor to an individual's health. Coleman and Iso-Ahola (1 993) have reported that participation can produce "mechanisms" that contribute to an individual's overall well-being. They argue that recreation involvement contributes to the development of high selfesteem, characterized by an internal Jocus of control and "hardiness." While - it is difficult to establish any single factor that contributes to an individual's self-esteem, several researchers have documented that athletes typically report higher levels of self-esteem when compared to non-athletes (Higgins, 1980; Mahoney, 1989). Method Participants in a university intramural volleyball program were randomly selected and asked to complete a questionnaire designed to assess their motivation for participation in leisure activities and their self-esteem. Subjects were participants in one of three

2 Kanters & Forester intramural volleyball leagues: highly competitive (COMP-A), low competitive (COMP-B) and recreational (REC). Leisure motivation was assessed using the Leisure Motivation Scale (Beard & Ragheb, 1983). Subjects responded to items from a factor analysis defining intellectual, social, competence-mastery and stimulus-avoidance components of leisure motivation. The "intellectual" component focused upon motivation for mental activities such as learning, exploring, discovering, creating or imagining. The "social" component examined the need for friendship, interpersonal relationships and the esteem of others while "competence-mastery" referred to the need to achieve, master, challenge and compete. "Stimulus-avoidance" measured the need to avoid social contacts, to seek solitude and calm conditions, or to seek rest and unwind. Reported alpha reliabilities for each of the subscales ranged from 0.90 to 0.92 (Beard & Ragheb, 1983). The Song and Hattie Test (Hattie, 1992), was used to evaluate subjects self-esteem. Subjects provided answers in response to items that defined self-concept in terms of: 1) academic self-concept-feelings about school work; 2) ability self-concept-feelings about academic skills; 3) class sew-concept-feelings about relative position in peer group; 4) peer self-concept-ability to get along with other people; 5) family self-concept-perceptions of family support; 6),social self-concept-general perception of how one is veiwed by others; and 7) physical self-concept- perception of physical attributes. According to Hattie, estimates of reliability are very reasonable and can allow for confidence when assessing Results Two hundred and three subjects completed questionnaires: 30 in COMP-A, 112 in COMP-B and 61 in REC. An analysis of respondent de- mographics indicated that there were 99 males (48.8%) and 104 females (51.2%) with a mean age of 21.5 years (SD=2.3). Respondents had played intramural volleyball for an average of 2.2 years (SD=1.3). A majority of the respondents indicated that their skill level was either average (17%). above average (25%) or good (35%). A comparison of the three leagues on skill level revealed that participants in the REC league rated themselves lower than participants in either of the two competitive leagues (c2=26.9, p=0.0001). An analysis of the gender distribution showed there were relatively equal numbers of males and females in each of the three leagues. Leisure Motivation An analysis of a composite leisure motivation score (sum of all items) comparing gender and level of play (COMP-A, COMP-B, REC) displayed no significant differences for each main effect and the interaction of gender and level of play. Subject responses to leisure motivation items were then grouped according to the four subscales (intellectual, social, competence-mastery and stimulusavoidance) proposed by Beard and Ragheb (1 983). A comparison of means across the four motivation sub-scales indicated that leisure motivation was significantly higher on the "competency/mastery" and "social" factors (F = 2.1, p=0.0001). Therefore, as a total group, participants in all three volleyball leagues were mo- tivated by the need to achieve, master, challenge and compete, the need for developing and maintaining friendships, and gaining esteem from others. A two factor ANOVA was used to assess the main effect of differences in leisure motivation across all three leagues and differences between males and females and the interaction of gender and level of play on leisure motivation. Results revealed only one significant main effect for gender on the stimulus-avoidance subscale. Consequently, participants in COMP- A, COMP-B and REC volleyball did not differ in their motivation for leisure activity and no significant differences were found when comparing male and female leisure motives across the three leagues. A significant main effect for gender on the stimulus-avoidance sub-scale, however, indicates that this component was more important for female than male participants (t=3.199, p=0.0016). Consequently, females in this sample indicated a greater need than males for leisure activities which provide opportunities to escape and get away from overstimulating life situations. The means for each leisure motivation sub-scale as a function of gender and level of play appear in Table 1. Self-Esteem Comparisons of composite selfesteem scores (sum of all items) for gender and level of play differences Table 1 Group Means of Leisure Motivation Sub-scales for Gender and League LEISURE MOTIVATION SUB-SCALE COMPETITIVE A COMPETITIVE B RECREATIONAL Intellectual Males Females Social Males Females Competence-Mastery Males emale Stimulus-Avoidance* Males I Females Total Leisure Motivation Males Females Significant Main Effect for Gender, F= 8.91, p=.0032

4 Kanters & Forester indicated that there was a significant main effect for level of play (F=3.78, p=.0245). Subsequent analysis revealed that participants in the COMP-B had significantly higher overall self-esteem scores than participants in the COMP-A league but the overall self-esteem of participants in the REC league was not significantly different from participants in the COMP-A or COMP-B leagues (Scheffe F=3.695, ~~0.05). Subject responses to self-esteem items were also grouped according to Song and Hattie's proposed sub-scales (academic self-concept, ability self-concept, class self-concept, peer self-concept, family self-concept, social self-concept and physical self-concept) (Hattie, 1992). Results of a two-factor ANOVA assessing differences between males and females, and across the three levels of play, indicated that level of play means were significantly different on the "family self-esteem" sub-scale (F=4.05, p=0.0189). Subsequent analysis indicated that participants in COMP-A reported higher "family self-esteem" scores than COMP-B participants. There were no significant differences between COMP-A and REC, or COMP- B and REC participants (Scheffe F=2.189). This suggests that individuals who select a highly competitive league perceive their family support and trust (i.e., I am loved by myfamily) to be higher than participants in a less competitive league. It is interesting to note that there was a difference between the two competitive leagues but not between the competitive and recreational leagues. The means of each self-esteem subscale as a function of gender and level of play appear in Table 2. Discussion and lmplicatlons The results suggest that participants in recreational sports programs are motivated more by "competency-mastery" and "social" factors than "intellectual" and "stimulus-avoidance" factors. Participants reported a greater desire to fulfill their need to achieve, master certain skills, challenge themselves and compete against other individuals. Participants were also motivated by the need to develop and maintain friendships and gain positive recognition from their peers. While male and female participants did not differ in their need for intellectual, competency-mastery and social opportunities in recreation, femalescfid report a greater need than males for opportunities to escape or get away from stressful life situations. This finding is Table 2 Group Means of Self-Esteem Sub-scales for Gender and League SELF-ESTEEM SUB-SCALE COMPETITIVE A COMPETITIVE I3 RECREATIONAL Academic Males Females Ability Males Females Class Males Females Peer Males Females Family* Males Females Physical Males _ Females _ Social Males Females Total Self-Esteem" Males Females Significant Main Effect for Level of Play, F= 4.05, p=.0189 " Significant Main Effect for Level of Play, F=3.78, p= both contrary and consistent with previous research. While past research has suggested that females seem less oriented than males toward competing and winning in terms of interpersonal comparisons (Gill, 1988; Gill, Gross & Huddleston, 1983), this study found no difference between males and females. This same body of research, however, did support the finding that females are more focused on competition that helps them achieve their personal goals (i.e., opportunities to escape).... males and females are more alike than different in their approach to sport involvement. It is interesting to note there were no differences in leisure motivation when compared across the three levels of play. Previous research has suggested that competitive sport participants report different motivations for involvement than recreational sport participants (Fortier, Vallerand, Briere & Provencher, 1995). Competitive sport athletes typically engage in their sport for the extrinsic rewards: prestige, recognition or to avoid negative consequences (e.g., criticisms from parents or peers) (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Conversely, recreational athletes tend to demonstrate greater intrinsic needs from participation in sport such as performing an activity simply for the pleasure and satisfaction of the experience (Fortier et al., 1995). However, results of this study showed that recreational league participants were motivated by the same extrinsic rewards (achievement, recognition) as their competitive counterparts. These results have several important implications for fe~teatio"hal-spo~~ administrators. The level of competition does not appear to be a significant factor in attracting participants to recreational sports programs, aside from the need to compete against individu- 6 SPRING 1997 NlRSA JOURNAL

5 als of similar skill level. Students are participating in sports programs (both highly competitive and recreational) for the opportunity to challenge themselves, master skills, meet new people and be recognized for their skills and abilities. While the different levels of play examined in this study did not show different levels of participant motivations, administrators should continue to offer a variety of competitive levels of sport opportunities so that students can select the level of play that most appropriately matches their own ability. In order for an individual to fulfill their need for challenge, achievement and competition they need to be able to participate in activities that closely match their own skill level while competing against opponents with similar abilities. Consequently, under these ability grouping conditions participants are more likely to feel in control of their activity, have the potential for success and experience what Csikszentmihalyi (1990) terms "flow" or optimal experience. Achieving optimal experiences would also facilitate female participants need to escape from stressful life situations. Another important implication is that male and female respondents did not differ in their motives for participation (with the exception of females reporting a greater need to escape than males). Past research has suggested that males and females have different motives for participation and sport leagues should be divided sparately for men and women. Given that men and women may have similar motives for participation and that skill levels could be appropriately matched, sport administrators could expand mixed (coed) sport opportunities. This expansion would also facilitate participants need for social affiliations. It also seems reasonable to assume that mixed gender teams would provide greater opportunities for social interactioni than single-gender teams. The results of respondents self- ever, there were no differences in each of the self-esteem sub-scales across the three levels of play. The fact that there were differences between the highly competitive and moderately competitive leagues, and no differences between the other leagues suggests that participants with lower self-concept are selecting the most competitive league available. This finding is consistent with previous research which reports that in highly competitive activities where the emphasis is on winning, individuals adopt an external locus of causality which leads to a decrease in feelings of selfdetermination and is characteristic of people with low self-esteem (Fortier et al., 1995). A comparison of male and female self-esteem scores revealed no differences between the overall selfesteem and each of the self-esteem sub-scales, with the exception of family self-concept (females reported higher family self-esteem scores than males). This result again supports the conclusion that males and females are more alike than different in their approach to sport involvement. Past research has argued that the socialization process generally shapes the development of males and females in different ways (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger & Tarule, 1986). This division between males and females, however, appears to be becoming less distinct thereby affecting implications for sport delivery. If both genders are motivated to participate in sport in the same way and if the subsequent selfesteem of male and female sport participants is similar, then administrators should explore additional opportunities to "mix" the genders. This approach may also serve to de-emphasize the competitive nature of sports and focus on the inherent qualities of sports participation and the "healthy" by-products of satisfying recreational experiences. REFERENCES Beard, J.G., & Ragheb, M.G. (1983), Measurina leisure motivation. Journal of esteem comparisons indicated that ~eis&e Research, 15(3), participants in the Belenky, M.F., Clinchy, B.M., Goldberger, petitive volleyball league had higher N.R.. & Tarule. J.M. (1986). Women's overall self-esteem than participants in ways of knowing. '~ew'york: Basic the highly competitive league, how- Books. Bird, A., & Cripe, B. (1986). Psychology and sport behaviour. St. Louis, MO: Mosby College Publishing. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper and Row. Coleman, D., & Iso-Ahola, S.E. (1993). Leisure and health: The role of social support and self-determination. Journal of Leisure Research, 25(2), Davies, D. (1989). Psychological factors of self-esteem. Philadelphia, PA: Farmer Press. Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum. Fortier, M.S., Vallerand, R.J, Briere, N,M., & Provencher, P.J. (1995). Competitive and recreational sport structures and gender: A test of their relationship with sport motivation. lnternational Journal of Sport Psychology, 26, Gill, D. (1988). Gender differences in competitive orientation and sport participation. lnternational Journal of Sport P~ychol~gy, 19, Gill, D., Gross, J., & Huddleston, S. (1983). Participation motivation in youth sports. lnternational Journal of Sport Psychology, 14, Hattie, J. (1992). Self-concept. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Higgins, R.J. (1980). A comparison of former scholastic athletes and nonathletes: Self concept and selected life adjustment correlations. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Temple University. Hirschman, E.C. (1984). Leisure motives and sex roles. Journal of Leisure Research, 16(3), Iso-Ahola, S.E., & Allen, J.R. (1982). The dynamics of leisure motivation: The effects of outcome on leisure needs. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 53(2), Mahoney, M.J. (1989). Psychological predictors of elite and non-eliie performance in Olympic weightlifting. lnternational Journal of Sport Psychology, 20,l-12. Snodgrass, M.L., & Tinsley, C.E. (1990). Recreation and wellness: Identifying motivations for participation in recreational sports. NlRSA Journal, 15(1), Wankel, L.M., & Berger, B.G. (1990). The psychological and social benefits of sport and physical activity. Journal of Leisure Research, 22(2), SPRING 1997 NlRSA JOURNAL 7

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