PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT & EXERCISE

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1 PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT & EXERCISE MOTIVATION IN SPORT What we already know?? Remember (NEW)? B F Skinner Operant conditioning Motivation comes through reinforcement Positive (adding nice rewards) Negative (withholding nasty punishments) Positive is best BEHAVIOURISM 1

2 Lepper & Green (1975) Children in nursery spend time colouring with felt pens Very motivated Some children promised Good Player certificate for playing with pens 1 week later, these children spend less time drawing! Rewards can damage motivation? Different types of reward Edward Deci (1975) INTRINSIC vs EXTRINSIC motivations INTRINSIC = [behaviours] which a person engages in to feel competent and self-determining SPONTANEOUS not provided by others persistent 2

3 Deci et al. (1981) Participants all given an interesting task Half told to try and beat the others (competitive condition) Everyone allowed to win Later, given choice of activities Less motive to continue for competitive group Especially females! COGNITIVE EVALUATION THEORY Deci says behaviourism is not enough Must look at cognitions Depends on MEANING of reward Extrinsic rewards SOMETIMES reduce selfdetermination I m only doing this to impress the coach But sometimes add to it Hey! If he complimented me I must be doing something right! 3

4 SELF DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT) 1 Edward Deci & Richard Ryan, University of Rochester, New York (2000) Drawing together Cognitive Evaluation Theory and later research A new model of motivation Importance of encouraging INTRINSIC motivation SELF DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT) 2 3 psychological needs that affect INTRINSIC MOTIVATION: 1. COMPETENCE we need to feel we can succeed Improved by positive feedback and challenging tasks 2. AUTONOMY we need to feel able to choose and be in control Improved by giving people freedom and acknowledging their feelings 3. RELATEDNESS we need to care for others and be cared for in return Improved by being in a caring group 4

5 SELF DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT) 3 Importance of SELF- REGULATION how deeply do you relate to the task you have to do? Stages going from completely extrinsic to completely intrinsic 1. EXTERNAL REGULATION You do it because you re made to or being paid to and no other reason I ve got to go to training or coach will kill me! SELF DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT) 4 2. INTROJECTED REGULATION You have some choice and the rewards are a bit more internal I ve got to go to training cos all my friends will be there 3. IDENTIFIED REGULATION The task is personally important to you I ve got to go to training so I can have a shot at being a regional finalist 5

6 SELF DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT) 5 4. INTEGRATED REGULATION The task is something you completely identify with Training for this year s competition is really important to me 5. INTRINSIC REGULATION This is completely intrinsic motivation with no thought of reward or obligation I just love my sport and wish I could be doing it all the time TECHNIQUE move players up the scale, making their self-regulation less external, more internal Putting this into practice Ronald Smith & Frank Smoll (1979) designed a COACH EFFECTIVENESS TRAINING (CET) programme Tested it on Little League Baseball teams & coaches Out Winning is everything! In team-building, self-esteem CET group report more enthusiasm & motivation Especially low self-esteem children! 6

7 What would Freud say? Motivation boils down to sex! This PSYCHOSEXUAL energy is called LIBIDO It needs to be channelled DISPLACEMENT SUBLIMATION Other EGO DEFENCE MECHANISMS What would Freud say? Conflicts between ID and SUPER- EGO block libido Sabotage our own efforts Eg dread of success Secrets of motivation are in the unconscious not the environment 7

8 Dan Jansen American speed skater tipped for gold in 1988 Olympics On day of competition, his sister died 10 seconds into 500m race, he fell Fell again in 1000m 4 years later, competed again & fell again 1994 games lost balance in 500m BUT won 1000m Why the falls? Unconscious guilt? Winning = betraying his feelings for his sister? What would Freud say? RORSCHACH TEST Unreliable, subjective PSYCHOANALYSIS Time-consuming, expensive Resolves unconscious conflicts Doesn t work for everyone 8

9 Achievement Motivation 1 David McClelland researched our NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (N-Ach) High N-Ach people are independent and seek out challenges 1. They seek recognition 2. Praised/rewarded in childhood 3. Attribute success to skill, not luck 4. Associate achievement with positive feelings Achievement Motivation 2 Diagnosed nach by getting Ps to complete a THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT) Projective test, 30 images What s going on in the picture? Story you tell reveals a lot about you Very Freudian 9

10 Achievement Motivation 3 Tested range of ages, background (test takes hours ) N-Ach rises with occupational level managers, businessmen, professionals have highest scores High n-ach people prefer tasks with a 50% chance of success Prefer working alone or with other high n-ach Demand regular feedback McClelland-Atkinson Model (1953) John William Atkinson developed the idea of n- Ach Personality trait: ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION = [desire to succeed] [fear of failure] High achiever desire to succeed greater than fear of failure Modified by situation 1. Probability of success [cognition] 2. Incentive for succeeding [reinforcement] 10

11 McClelland-Atkinson Model - evaluate Diane Gill (1986) reviewed research on motivation Supports idea that HIGH ACHIEVERS prefer difficult tasks, LOW ACHIEVERS prefer easy ones BUT does not predict performance (high achievers not more likely to win) Fear of Success (FoS) What about gender differences? Matina Horner (1972) suggests 3 rd motive besides desire to succeed and fear of failure FEAR OF SUCCESS Women have greater FoS? Influenced by gender stereotypes, cultural norms Other research suggests males just as affected by FoS 11

12 Sport-specific theories of motivation More emphasis on goals and intentions Diane Gill defines 3 types (1) COMPETITIVENESS the desire to succeed in sport (2) WIN ORIENTATION success means beating the opposition (3) GOAL ORIENTAION success means achieving personal goals Similar to intrinsic/extrinsic motivation? Sport Orientation Win-orientated people prefer weaker or stronger opponents Guaranteed win or noblame defeat Goal-orientated people prefer realistic opponents Don t see losing as a setback Can this be measured? 12

13 Sport Orientation Questionnaire Diane Gil & Thomas Deeter (1988) 25 questions Assesses win vs goal orientation + Overall competitiveness Men score high for win & competitiveness Women score high for goal Athletes score higher than non-athletes on everything Athletes more concerned about performance than winning compared to non-athletes Summing Up Traditional motivation = carrot + stick (OPERANT CONDITIONING) Need to focus more on INSTRINSIC motivations (SDT, Deci & Ryan) Or possibly unconscious motives (Freud) More empirical approach ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION (McClelland & Atkinson) and TAT Sport specific approach SPORTS ORIENTATION (Gill) and SOQ (Gill & Deeter) 13

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