Encoding processes, in memory scanning tasks

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1 vlemory & Cognton 1976,4 (5), Encodng processes, n memory scannng tasks JEFFREY O. MILLER and ROBERT G. PACHELLA Unversty of Mchgan, Ann Arbor, Mchgan 48101, Three experments are presented that deal wth the effect of stmulus probablty on the encodng of both alphanumerc characters and nonsense fgures. Experment I replcated a prevous fndng of an nteracton between stmulus probablty and stmulus qualty n a memory scannng task wth numbers as stmul. Experments II and III nvestgated the same paradgm wth unfamlar vsual forms as stmul,. and no nteracton was found. Results were nterpreted as showng that probablty affects the encodng mechansm only when the encodng process results n a representaton of the name of the stmulus. When stmulus materals are vsual forms wthout names, probablty does not appear to affect encodng processes. An ssue that has receved great attenton recently s the effect of stmulus probablty on the memory scannng or character classfcaton task extensvely studed oy Sternberg (1966, 1967, 1969). Theos, Smth, Havland, Traupmann, and Moy (1973) have shown that ;tmulus probablty affects reacton tme (RT) n ths task and, on the bass of ths result, challenged Sternberg's (1969) four-stage model. Sternberg's (1969) model ncludes an encodng stage, n whch the subject forms an nternai representaton of the test tem; an exhaustve comparson stage, n whch the subject compares the test tem aganst every tem n the postve set; a response choce stage, n whch the subject exmnes an nternal swtch to see whether or not a match occurred at any tme durng the comparson stage; and a response executon stage, n whch the subject performs the approprate response. As Theos et al, (1973) have ponted out, the comparson mechansm n ths model does not account for stmulus probablty effects, snce on each tral the probe tem s compared to every postve set tem. They proposed a new model n whch the comparson stage termnates as soon as a match s found, and both postve and negatve set tems are compared wth the probe or test tem. In the Theos et al. (1973) model, the order of comparson s nfluenced by probablty, wth the probe beng compared earler (on the average) wth hgher probablty stmul. Snce the comparson process termnates when a match s found, the comparson process tends to be shorter when a hgh probablty probe s presented, wth a correspondng decrease n RT. Thus, ths model accounts for the stmulus probablty effect by a mechansm n the comparson stage. Ths research was supported by the Advanced Research Projects Agency, U.S. Department of Defense, and montored by the U.S. Ar Force Offce of Scentfc Research under Contract AF44620-n-e-0019 wth the Unversty of Mchgan, Human Performance Center. Requests for reprnts should be sent to Robert G. Pachella, Human Performance Center, 330 Packard Road, Ann Arbor, Mchgan Certan evdence suggests that t mght not be neecessary to explan the stmulus probablty effect by means of a mechansm n the comparson stage. Mller and Pachella (1973) attempted to determne n whch stage stmulus probablty has ts effect. They covared stmulus probablty and stmulus qualty n a character classfcaton task, and found an nteracton between these two factors. They concluded that stmulus qualty and stmulus probablty must affect some common stage of processng: namely, the encodng stage. Ths fndng suggested that Sternberg's (1969) model mght not be ncompatble wth stmulus probablty effects, but posed a problem for the Theos et al. (1973) model, n whch the effect of probablty was explaned n the comparson stage. Furthermore, three studes have drectly examned the comparson stage to test for evdence of probablty effects there. Klatzky and Smth (1972) vared postve set sze and probablstc expectancy and found no nteracton. They concluded that expectancy does not affect the comparson stage. Both Theos and Walter (1974) and Bederman and Stacy (1974) tested for an nteracton ofstmulus probablty and postve set sze. Whle the data from these studes are very smlar, Theos and Water (1974) found the nteracton and concluded that probablty affects the comparson stage n accordance wth the Theos et al. (1973) model, but Bederman and Stacy (1974) found no such nteracton and concluded that probablty must have ts effect n some stage other than the comparson stage. Bederman and Stacy (1974) argued that stmulus probablty affects the response choce mechansm. One problem wth the nference that stmulus probablty affects encodng arses from the lack of nteracton between set sze and stmulus qualty (Sternberg, 1967; Bracey, 1969). Snce set sze was confounded wth stmulus probablty n these experments, set sze and stmulus qualty should have nteracted. To account for ths lack of nteracton, t may be necessary to dstngush expectancy effects from nunber of tems effects (e.g., Bederman & Stacy, 1974). Relatve prob- 501

2 502 MILLER AND PACHELLA ablty of tems wthn a set may determne expectancy and thereby nfluence the encodng process, whle the number of tems n the memory set may affect only the comparson process. EXPERIMENT I The locus of the stmulus probablty effect s of crucal mportance n the controversy between the memory scannng models of Sternberg (1969) and Theos et al. (1973). The experments of Mller and Pachella (1973) ndcate that probablty has at least part of ts effect on the encodng stage, but these experments have recently been questoned by Bederman and Stacy (1974). They expressed concern that the unusual method of degradaton used by Mller and Pachella (1973) may have led to atypcal results. That method of degradaton nvolved presentng the stmulus at low contrast ntally, and ncreasng the contrast durng the tral. Bederman and Stacy (1974) suggested that ths method of degradaton mght have affected some other stage n addton to the encodng stage. The purpose of Experment I of the present paper was to replcate Experment I of Mller and Pachella (1973) usng a more conventonal method of degradaton. Method Apparatus. The stmul were the dgts one-eght presented on a cathode ray tube (CRT) controlled by PDP-1 computer. Subjects sat about 65 ern from the CRT and responded on a mcroswtch keyboard drectly n front of them. Degradaton was produced by coverng the entre face of the CRT wth a sheet of acetate. Ths sheet reduced the ntensty of the stmulus by about 1.5 log unts, thus reducng the contrast between stmulus and background. Subjects and procedure. Subjects were 24 pad volunteers from the Unversty of Mchgan campus. All subjects were rght-handed. The procedure was nearly dentcal to that of Experment I of Mller and Pachella (1973). Subjects were gven a set of dgts to remember pror to the experment. One dgt was presented on each tral, to whch subjects were requred to gve the postve response f the dgt was one of the prevvously memorzed set of dgts and the negatve response otherwse. Each subject was run n four blocks of 200 trals. Postve set was held constant across the four blocks, and blocks alternated between hgh- and low-contrast stmul, wth the order of hgh- and low-contrast blocks counterbalanced across subjects. Subjects made the postve response wth ther rght ndex fngers and the negatve response wth ther left ndex fngers. Each subject had a postve set of Sze 4 and a negatve set of Sze 4. The four tems n each set were assgned probabltes.275,.125,.075, and.025, and these probabltes were held constant throughout the four blocks. Stmulus sequences were generated by a pseudorandom computer algorthm ndvdually for each subject and block, wth the constrant that the frequency of each stmulus wthn a 200-tral block corresponded exactly to ts assgned probablty. Postve sets were chosen randomly and counterbalanced across subjects, so that each dgt occurred equally often at each probablty. The subjects were nstructed as to the nature of the task, and were gven the postve set. They were also told to be as fast and accurate as possble, but they were not nformed of the probablty manpulaton. At the begnnng of each block, the subjects were gven a verbal ready sgnal. Then the fn stmulus appeared, and remaned on the CRT untl a respons was made. "Rght" or "wrong" feedback was gven' after eac response, and about I sec later the next stmulus appearec Results and Dscusson For each block of 200 trals, the average RT an percentage error were computed at each level of stmulu probablty for both postve and negatve response! These values were averaged across subjects and respons type separately for hgh- and low-contrast blocks, an the results are shown n Fgure 1. An analyss of varanc of RTs yelded sgnfcant man effects of Stmulu Contrast [F(1,22) = 45.4, P <.01, MSe = 82,452] am Stmulus Probablty [F(3,66) = 31.5, p <.01 MSe = 13,003]. The nteracton of Stmulus Qualty b Stmulus Probablty was also sgnfcant [F(3,66): 3.09, P <.05, MSe = 7,455]. The only other sgnfcan nteractons were the nteractons of Practce by Qualtj [F(1,22) = 6.38, p<.ol, MSe=33,611] and Practe by Probablty [F(3,66) = 5.94, p <.01, MSe = 5,457] Both the Qualty effect and the Probablty effec decreased wth practce. In the analyss of error rates the only sgnfcant effect was that of Probabltj [F(3,66) = 6.96, p <.01, MSe = 11,429], wth mon errors beng made to low-probablty stmul. The results of ths experment replcate those 0 Mller and Pachella (1973). The Probablty effect very nearly the same n the normal condtons of the twc experments, whle the effect of Stmulus Qualty wa larger n the earler experment because of the dfferen c o z I;::,la.2l De... _1'10",, CUl,, 'e13.5l '" " ",125 STIMULUS 'IOIAIILITY..._-...,Jl 6) Fgure I. Reacton tme as a functon of stmulus probablty for the normal stmulus and degraded stmulus condtons n Experment I. (The average percentage error at each pont! ndcated n parentheses. The scale for the normal stmulus condton has been shfted upwards.) 12.7l.275 Q. l> '" Q

3 ENCODING PROCESSESIN MEMORY SCANNING TASKS 503 method of degradaton. The nteracton of Probablty by Qualty s sgnfcant n both studes, though t was larger n the earler experment, probably because of the larger effect of Stmulus Qualty. In ths experment, as well as the experments of Mller and Pachella (1973), the effect of degradaton ncreased monotoncally as stmulus probablty decreased. Although the Probablty by Qualty nteracton s not sgnfcant when the lowest probablty pont s excluded from the analyss, the consstent fmdng of a monotonc nteracton suggests that there may well be an nteracton of Probablty and Qualty at probablty levels n the range of.275 to.075, though a more powerful experment would be requred to detect t statstcally. Thus, both experments support the dea that stmulus probablty affects the encodng stage, despte dfferent methods of producng degradaton. EXPERIMENT II The evdence s strong that stmulus probablty affects the encodng stage n a memory scannng task, so t makes sense to ask how, or through what mechansm, probablty affects the encodng process. The mechansms of the encodng process n RT paradgms have not been studed extensvely, but there s evdence that the fnal output of the encodng process (.e., the representaton of the stmulus used n the comparson stage) s n the form of a name code.' Sternberg (1967) and Bracey (I969) vared memory set sze and stmulus qualty and found no nteracton, at least for practced subjects. Ths fndng ndcates that the comparson process nvolves a representaton of the stmulus whch retans no effects of vsual degradaton. Wattenbarger (Note I; see also Nckerson, Note 2, for a dscusson of Wattenbarger's work) vared the case of the memory set letters and the probe letters n a memory scannng task. One condton requred subjects to respond gnorng case. In the other condton, subjects were to make postve responses only f the probe had been gven n the postve set n the case n whch t was probed. In the latter condton, the subjects were to gve negatve responses f the probe letter had appeared n the postve set n the other case. The crucal comparson was of comparson rates n these two tasks as compared to a thrd task n whch case was not vared. Wattenbarger reasoned that f the subjects used nternal representatons of the names of stmul, then "memory scannng rates should be about equal n the task where subjects gnored case and n the task where case was not vared. If the subjects used nternal representatons of a vsual nature, then memory scannng rates should be about equal n the task where subjects had to respond on the bass of case and n the task where case was not vared. Hs data supported the noton of name-eode representatons. Chase and Calfee (1969) nvestgated the effects of acoustcally and vsually confusable memory sets n a memory scannng task. They found that memory searchng was slower through an acoustcally smlar postve set than through vsually smlar or neutral postve sets. Ths fndng provdes further evdence that nternal representatons used n ths task are of an acoustc nature. Gven the evdence that the fnal form of the encoded stmulus s the name of the stmulus, a rudmentary model of the encodng process can be consdered. Theos (1975) has recently developed such a model, and the model ncludes two dstnct mechansms. The frst s an nput stage that transforms the physcal stmulus nto a code that can be used n memory. The second process s an dentfcaton stage that transforms the stmulus code nto the name code of the stmulus. Presumably, durng ths stage the stmulus trace makes contact wth long-term memory, and the name of the probe s retreved for the subsequent comparson operatons. Stmulus probablty mght affect ether one or both of these substages of the encodng process. One way to dscover where probablty has ts effect s to remove one of the substages. Consder a memory scannng task wth a set of stmul whch do not have assocated name codes. The vsual preprocessng mechansm should operate n much the same manner for these stmul, though perhaps more slowly, snce one would not expect processng pror to dentfcaton to be qualtatvely nfluenced by the type of dentfcaton that wll result at the end of the process. However, the second stage must obvously be qute dfferent, snce no name representaton exsts for these stmul. Experment II nvestgated the encodng process n a memory scannng task where the stmul do not have name codes assocated wth them, n an attempt to delneate the locus of the probablty effect wthn the encodng stage. If probablty has a smlar effect on the encodng stage n a task where stmul do not have the name codes, then t s reasonable to nfer that probablty has ts effect on the vsual preprocessng substage of encodng. However, a fndng that probablty has no effect on encodng n such a task would be strong evdence that probablty affects the retreval of a name code for the probe. Note that t would not be vald to predct that, snce a substage s deleted when stmul do not have name codes, RTs should be faster overall than when stmul do not have name codes. Other stages could be slowed by the use of a dfferent type of code. In partcular, Brggs and Swanson (1970) showed that the comparson stage proceeded much more slowly for nonsense forms than for alphanumerc stmul. It would also not be vald to predct that, f probablty does not affect encodng n ths task, the overall effect of probablty should be smaller than t was n tasks where probablty dd affect encodng. We do not beleve that probablty affects only the encodng stage, but rather that t has some of ts effect on encodng. Modfyng the task n order to remove the effect of probablty on encodng could ncrease the duraton

4 504 MILLER AND PACHELLA, Fgure 2. Stmul used n Experment II. of other probablty senstve stages. For example, f probablty were to affect the comparson stage, then, on the bass of the work of Brggs and Swanson (I970), probablty should have a larger effect on the comparson stage for nonsense forms than for dgts. Thus, the effect of probablty could be larger for nonsense forms than for dgts, even f a probablty senstve processng stage s deleted. The only predcton relatve to the present experment that can be made from the hypothess that probablty affects the retreval of a name code s that probablty and qualty should not nteract when no name-code retreval occurs. Method Apparatus. The stmul are shown n Fgure 2. They were presented on a CRT controlled by an IBM 1800 computer. Subjects sat about 65 cm from the CRT and responded on a mcroswtch keyboard. Degradaton was produced n the same manner as n Experment I. Subjects and procedure. Twenty-four rght-handed subjects were recruted from the Unversty of Mchgan campus. Partcpaton was voluntary, and subjects were pad $2/h. The procedure was dentcal to that of Experment I wth the followng exceptons: (1) Each subject was run n three blocks of 200 trals nstead of four. The frst block was a practce block so the subjects could learn the stmul, and t was always run wthout degradaton. The order of degraded and normal contast n the second and thrd blocks was counterbalanced across subjects. (2) The subject had a thrd response key whch he could press at any tme, causng the tral sequence to be nterrupted and the postve set to be dsplayed on hs CRT. Results and Dscusson Fgure 3 shows the average RTs and percentages of error at each level of stmulus probablty for both hgh and low contrast. In the analyss oferror rates, only the man effects of Stmulus Qualty [F(I,22) = 8.0, p <.01, MSe = 36] and Probablty [F(3,66) = 5.56, p <.01, MSe = 108] were sgnfcant. In the analyss of varance of RTs, the only sgnfcant man effects were Stmulus Qualty [F(I,22) =43.8, P <.01, MS e = 28,072], Response Type [F(I,22) = 10.6, p <.01, MSe =28,687J and Probablty [F(3,66) =32.6, P <.01, MS e =25,998J. The nteracton of Stmulus Qualty by Probablty, whch s shown n Fgure 3, was not sgnfcant [F(3,66) =.7, MS e = 5,348]. Snce the nteracton of Qualty by Probablty s not sgnfcant wth these stmulus materals, t s temptng to conclude that the place where Qualty and Probablty overlap n ther effects s the process of arrvng at a name code for the stmulus. However, ths s a rather strong concluson to be drawn on the bass of a sngle experment whch accepted the null hypothess. Furthermore, the stmulus materals n Experment II dffer from the dgts used n Experment I n other ways besdes lackng a verbal code. The fgures n Experment II were sold rather than lne fgures, and clearly had fewer vsual features than the set of dgts one-eght. Experment III s an attempt to replcate Experment II wth a set of stmulus materals vsually more smlar to dgts. :c! ị..! ::: 7 EXPERIMENT III Method The stmul for ths experment are shown n Fgure 4. They were presented on a CRT controlled by a PDP-I computer. Subjects were run n four blocks of 200 trals, alternatng between hgh- and low-contrast blocks. No practce block was gven. All other aspects of the method are dentcal to those n Experment II. Results and Dscusson The average RTs and percentages of error at each level of stmulus probablty and qualty are shown n STIMULUS PROIAIIUTY.2, ! 920 (5.. Fgure 3. Reacton tme as a functon of stmulus probablty for the normal stmulus and degraded stmulus condtons n Experment II. (The average percentage error at each pont s ndcated n parentheses. The scale for the normal stmulus condton has been shfted upwards.)

5 ENCODING PROCESSESIN MEMORY SCANNING TASKS 505 Fgure 4. Stmul used n Experment III. Fgure 5. In the analyss of error rates, the only sgnfcant man effects were those of Practce [F(1,22) = 15.7, P <.01, MS e = 24,768] and Probablty [F(3,66) = 22.6, P <.01, MS e = 18,687]. The nteracton of Practce by Order of Degraded vs. Normal Blocks was sgnfcant [F(l,22) = 4.36, P <.05, MS e = 24,768], wth the group recevng the Normal block frst mprovng more between the frst and last two blocks than the group recevng the Degraded block frst. Also sgnfcant was the Order by Qualty nteracton [F(1,22) = 7.5, P <.05, MS e =: 7,329], wth the Qualty effect beng larger for the group startng wth a degraded block. The Qualty by Practce nteracton was also sgnfcant [F(1,22) = 5.48, P <.05, MS e = 6,314], wth the effect of Qualty decreasng between the frst and ast two blocks. In the analyss of RTs, the man effects of Practce [F(1,22) = 38.7, P <.01, MS e = 60,050], Qualty [F(l,22) =: 10.4, p <.01, MS e = 67,940], and Probablty [F(3,66) = 23.8, p<.oi, MS e = 44,785] were sgnfcant. The only sgnfcant two-way nteracton was that of Order by Qualty [F(1,22) = 19.2, p<.ol, MS e=67,940], wth the Qualty effect larger for the group startng wth a degraded block, as n the error rate data. The nteracton of partcular nterest, that of Qualty by Probablty, shown n Fgure 5, was partcularly small [F(3,66) =.09, MS e = 18,771]. GENERAL DISCUSSION The results of these three experments ndcate that two dstnct encodng processes are used n character classfcaton tasks. The results of Experment I, taken together wth the results of Mller and Pachella (1973) show that, when dgts are used as stmul, the encodng process s affected by probablty. When the stmul are nonsense shapes or forms, however, the encodng process s not affected by probablty, as demonstrated n Experments II and III. Thus, these data provde strong evdence that the encodng process operates n a fundamentally dfferent manner when t s dealng wth dgts as opposed to nonsense forms. One obvous dfference between the stmulus materals s that verbal codes are readly avalable n the case of dgts, whereas the nonsense forms dd not have readly avalable verbal codes. For both types of stmul, the encodng mechansm must frst nternalze the probe on the bass of ts vsual features. For alphanumerc stmul t appears that the next step s for the encodng process to retreve the name of the probe for use n the comparson process, whle for nonsense forms ths may not be done. Thus, one explanaton for the nteracton observed n Experment I s that probablty and qualty both affect the process of retrevng the name of a probe. If ths smple translaton s not made n the case of nonsense forms, there would be no nteracton of probablty and qualty when they were used as stmul. Convergng operatons are needed before ths explanaton could be accepted as more than a tentatve hypothess, snce t s possble that subjects constructed and used ther own codes for the nonsense forms used n Experment II and III. Such name codes would be very dfferent from the hghly overlearned names assocated wth letters or dgts, however, Another possble explanaton s that the crucal dfference n stmulus materals was that the dgts were famlar, whle the forms were unfamlar. It could be argued that probablty affects encodng of famlar stmul but not unfamlar stmul. Ths argument s not supported by other research (pachella & Mller, 1976) n whch probablty was not found to affect encodng ofletters n a letter-matchng task. '2 7 (11.9' e.to '" Z J Dee ::J _Nor_' oj ;: oj 710 c II e Z!... 7.a g ow '" 0! STIMULUS PRO.A.llITY : '" '" S c Fgure 5. Reacton tme as a functon of stmulus probablty for the normal stmulus and degraded stmulus condtons n Experment III. (The average percentage error at each pont s ndcated n parentheses. The scale for the normal stmulus condton has been shfted upwards.) '"

6 506 MILLER AND PACHELLA One objecton that mght be rased to the nterpretaton of these data s that stmulus qualty mght affect some stage other than the encodng stage. Sternberg (1967) found evdence that qualty affects the comparson stage, though only for relatvely unpractced subjects. Thus, t mght be argued that probablty and qualty nteract because both affect the comparson stage. Ths argument seems partcularly mplausble because of the lack of nteracton n Experments II and III, however. The dea that vsual aspects of stmulus qualty affect the comparson stage seems to ndcate that the nternal representaton s a vsual one (Sternberg, 1967). Thus, one would expect at least as large a Probablty by Qualty nteracton n tasks where subjects are more lkely to use a vsual code, such as Experments II and III. The lack of nteracton n these two experments s evdence aganst the argument that probablty and qualty nteract because both affect the comparson stage. Though probablty dd not seem to affect the encodng stage n the experments wth nonsense. forms, t defntely dd have a szeable effect. Ths result s problematc for the memory scannng model of Sternberg (1969), snce ths model can best explan probablty effects n the encodng stage. The result s not nconsstent wth the self-termnatng scan model of Theos et al. (1973), however. In ths model, probablty s assumed to affect the order of comparson n a selftermnatng comparson stage. Snce subjects search memory wth a vsual representaton of the probed nonsense form, ths model would have to assume that the encodng stage would remove all effects of degradaton ntally, otherwse a Probablty by Qualty nteracton would be found. Furthermore, the tme that the preprocessng mechansm takes to remove degradaton would have to be ndependent of stmulus probablty. Only under these condtons could the probablty effect have arsen through the comparson stage, as n the model of Theos et al. (1973), wthout producng an nteracton of qualty and probablty. Regardless of the sutablty of the present suggeston, future attempts to produce theoretcal accounts of memory scannng wll have to consder the nature of the materal to be dealt wth by the subject. The current models tend to descrbe sequences of processes that could potentally be operatve on any form of stmulus nput. The present experments demonstrate that relatonshps between prevously consdered varables (degradaton and probablty) are modfed by the nature of the stmulus materals. Thus, general processng schemes must take nto account ths factor. REFERENCE NOTES I. Wattenbarger. B. L. The representaton ot' the stmulus n character classfcaton. Unpublshed doctoral dssertaton. Unversty of Mchgan Nckerson. R. S. Bnary-classfcaton reacton tme: A revew of some studes of human nformaton-processng capab/tes(report No. 2004). Cambrdge. Mass: Bolt. Beranek and Newman REFERENCES BIEDERMAN. I.. & STACY. E. W. Stmulus probablty and stmulus set sze n memory scannng. Journal ofexpermental Psychology BRACEY. G. W. Two operatons n character recognton: A partal replcaton. Percepton & Psychophyscs BRIGGS, G. E.. & SWANSON, J. M. Encodng, decodng. and central functons n human nformaton processng. Journal ofexpermental Psychology , CHASE, W., & CALFEE, R. G. Modalty and smlarty effects n short-term recognton memory. Journal of Expermental Psychology KLATZKY. R. L.. & SMITH. E. E. Stmulus expectancy and retreval from short-term memory. Journal ot' Expermental Psychology MILLER, J. 0.. & PACHELLA. R. G. Locus of the stmulus probablty effect. Journal of Expermental Psychology. 1973, PACHELLA, R. G.. & MILLER. J. O. Stmulus probablty and same-dfferent classfcaton. Percepton & Psychophyscs STERNBERG, S. Hgh speed scannng n human memory. Scence, , STERNBERG, S. Two operatons n character recognton: Some evdence from reacton-tme measurements. Percepton & Psychophyscs. 1967, 2, STERNBERG. S. Memory scannng: Mental processes revealed by reacton tme experments. Amercan Scentst. 1969, 57, THEIOS. J. The components of response latency n smple human nformaton processng tasks. In P. M. A. Rabbtt & S. Dornc (Eds.), Attenton and performance, V. New York: Academc Press, THEIOS, J., SMITH, P. G.. HAVILAND, S. E., TRAUPMANN. 1.. & Mov, M. C. Memory scannng as a seral, self-termnatng process. Journal ofexpermental Psychology. 1973, THEIOS, J.. & WALTER, D. G. Stmulus and response frequency and sequental effects n memory scannng reacton tmes. Journal ofexpermentalpsychology, 1974, 102, NOTE 1. The use of "name code" here and elsewhere n ths paper refers to an dentfyng code whose relatons to the stmulus s very well establshed n long-term memory. Ths usage s consstent wth prevous usage, partcularly by Theos (1975). (Receved for publcaton June 23, 1975; revson accepted December 19, 1975.)

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