CHAPTER 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science

2 TOPICS AND QUESTIONS How do I explain dreams? Anxiety? The abilities and funny behavior of babies? The history and growth of psychology The big question: Nature vs. Nurture Biopsychosocial levels of analysis Psychology s subfields Avoiding three common sense thinking errors The Scientific Attitude: Curiosity, Skepticism, Humility The Scientific Method Description, Correlation, and Experimentation

3 HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY Aristotle (4 th century BCE) had ideas about how the body and mind work. His method: making guesses. Wilhelm Wundt ( ) added two key elements to help make psychology a science: 1. carefully measured observations 2. experiments

4 WUNDT S EXPERIMENT (1879) Push a button when a ball dropped (based on when they heard the ball hit a platform): 1/10th of a second. Push a button when consciously aware of hearing the ball hit the platform: 2/10ths of a second. Why were the times different?

5 EDWARD TITCHENER STRUCTURALISM Edward Titchener, like his teacher Wundt, used data from introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of experience. Structuralism: Using these introspective reports to build a view of the mind s structure

6 HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY Functionalism: The school of thought that Psychological processes have a function: helping us survive as individuals, adapt as a species William James The developer of Functionalism, William James ( ), asked: How did the human style of thinking and behavior enable our ancestors to live long enough to reproduce? James mentored another pioneer

7 HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY Mary Whiton Calkins ( ) became a memory researcher and the first female president of the APA. Mary Whiton Calkins She studied with William James but was denied a Harvard PhD.

8 HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY Margaret Floy Washburn ( ): The first female to earn a Psychology PhD The second female APA president Margaret Floy Washburn, PhD

9 DEFINING PSYCHOLOGY Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener, around 1900: The science of mental life. Now we combine these definitions: The science of behavior and John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behaviorists, 1920 s: The scientific study mental of observable behavior. processes. Cognitive psychologists, 1960 s, studied internal mental processes, helped by neuroscience.

10 TRENDS IN PSYCHOLOGY Freudian/Psychoanalytic Psychology Sigmund Freud, founder of psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud Pioneered using psychology to help people with mental disorders.

11 TRENDS IN PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIORISM John B. Watson B. F. Skinner Behaviorists study and experiment with observable behavior. Watson experimented with conditioned responses. Skinner studied the way consequences shape behavior. Like other behaviorists, he saw little value in introspection.

12 TRENDS IN PSYCHOLOGY: HUMANISM Abraham Maslow Humanists: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (1960s): Studied people who were thriving rather than those who had psychological problems. Developed theories and treatments to help people to feel accepted and to reach their full potential. Carl Rogers

13 NATURE vs. NURTURE The Nature-Nurture Question: To what extent are our traits already set in place at birth (our Nature )? And to what extent do our traits develop in response to our environment/ experience (our Nurture )?

14 NATURE vs. NURTURE Descartes: Some ideas are innate. Plato: Ideas such as the good and beauty are inborn. Aristotle: All knowledge comes through the senses. Nature vs. Nurture Charles Darwin: Some traits become part of our nature through natural selection: they help us survive long enough to pass the traits to the next generation. John Locke: The mind is a blank slate (blank chalkboard or screen) written on by experience.

15 NATURE vs. NURTURE We share a common origin that gives us an inborn human nature in common. Nature + We have differences that are shaped by our environment. Nurture Nurture works on what Nature endows.

16 Biopsychosocial Levels of Analysis The deep level, Biology: genes, brain, neurotransmitters, survival, reflexes, sensation In the middle, Psychology: thoughts, emotions, moods, choices, behaviors, traits, motivations, knowledge, perceptions The outer level, Environment: social Influences, culture, education, relationships

17 Biopsychosocial Levels of Analysis Example: Example: Enjoying Depression Intelligence Shyness Soccer

18 PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES: Cognitive perspective Social-cultural Behavioral genetics Neuroscience Psychodynamic Behaviorist Evolutionary How reliable is memory? How can we improve our thinking? Could our behavior, skills, and attitudes be downloads from our culture? Could our behavior, skills, and attitudes be genetically programmed instincts? What role do our bodies and brains play in emotions? How is pain inhibited? Can we trust our senses? Do inner childhood conflicts still plague me and affect my behavior? How are our problematic behaviors reinforced? How do our fears become conditioned? What can we do to change these fears and behaviors? Why are humans prone to panic, anger, and making irrational judgments?

19 PSYCHOLOGY S SUBFIELDS Basic research Biological Developmental Cognitive Personality Social Positive Psychology Explore the structural problems in the brain that may be part of autism Study how the stages of cognitive and emotional development vary in autism Clarify the difficulties autistic children have with understanding sarcasm Decide whether traits like neuroticism need to be measured differently in autism Find how autistic children can learn social skills as procedures if not by intuition Explore what motivates people and contributes to life satisfaction

20 PSYCHOLOGY S SUBFIELDS Applied Clinical Psychology Counseling Psychology Educational Psychology Industrial-Organizational Community Psychology Clinical Psychology Use exposure therapy to decrease phobic reactions in a traumatized client Help someone achieve career goals despite family conflict and self-doubt Evaluate aptitudes and achievement to plan for a student with learning problems Figure out how a factory can improve coordination of tasks, roles, and personalities Help coordinate a city s efforts to understand and prevent elder abuse Use exposure therapy to decrease phobic reactions in a traumatized client

21 WHY STUDY PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE? Typical errors in hindsight, overconfidence, and coincidence The scientific attitude and critical thinking The scientific method: theories and hypotheses Gathering psychological data: description, correlation, and experimentation/causation Describing data: significant differences Issues in psychology: laboratory vs. life, culture and gender, values and ethics

22 COMMON THINKING ERRORS Hindsight bias: I knew it all along. The coincidence error, or mistakenly perceiving order in random events: The dice must be fixed because you rolled three sixes in a row. Overconfidence error: I am sure I am correct.

23 COMMON THINKING ERRORS: Hindsight Bias Classic example: after watching a competition When (sports, you cooking), see most if You you I knew were results don t this accepted make of a prediction psychological would happen into this ahead of research, college/university time, you you might say, make that a was postdiction : obvious I figured that team/person would win because Hindsight bias is like a crystal ball that we use to predict the past.

24 COMMON THINKING ERRORS: Overconfidence We overestimate our performance, our rate of work, our skills, and our degree of self-control. Test for this: how long do you think it takes you to (e.g. just finish this one thing I m doing on the computer before I get to work )? How fast can you unscramble words? Guess, then try these: HEGOUN ERSEGA When stating that we know something, our level of confidence is usually much higher than our level of accuracy. Overconfidence is a problem in preparing for tests. Familiarity is not understanding If you feel confident that you know a concept, try explaining it to someone else.

25 COMMON THINKING ERRORS: Perceiving Order in Random Events Example: The coin tosses that look wrong if there are five heads in a row. Danger: thinking you can make a prediction from a random series. If there have been five heads in a row, you can not predict that it s time for tails on the next flip Why this error happens: because we have the wrong idea about what randomness looks like. Result of this error: reacting to coincidence as if it has meaning If one poker player at a table got pocket aces twice in a row, is the game rigged?

26 CRITICAL THINKING INVOLVES: Curiosity Skepticism Humility

27 CRITICAL THINKING What did Amazing Randi do about the claim of seeing auras? He developed a testable prediction, which would support the theory if it succeeded. Which it did not. The aura-readers were unable to locate the aura around Randi s body without seeing Randi s body itself, so their claim was not supported.

28 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD The scientific method is the process of testing our ideas about the world by: Turning our theories into testable predictions. Gather information related to our predictions. analyzing whether the data fits with our ideas. If the data doesn t fit our ideas, then we modify our hypotheses, set up a study or experiment, and try again to see if the world fits our predictions.

29 SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Theory A theory, in the language of science, is a set of principles, built on observations and other verifiable facts, that explains some phenomenon and predicts its future behavior. Example of a theory: All ADHD symptoms are a reaction to eating sugar.

30 SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Theory A hypothesis is a testable prediction consistent with our theory. Testable means that the hypothesis is stated in a way that we could make observations to find out if it is true. What would be a prediction from the All ADHD is about sugar theory? One hypothesis: If a kid gets sugar, the kid will act more distracted, impulsive, and hyper. To test the All part of the theory: ADHD symptoms will continue for some kids even after sugar is removed from the diet.

31 SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Beware of Bias! We might select only the data, or the interpretations of the data, that support what we already believe. There are safeguards against this: Hypotheses designed to disconfirm Operational definitions Guide for making useful observations: How can we measure ADHD symptoms in the previous example in observable terms? Impulsivity = # of times/hour calling out without raising hand. Hyperactivity = # of times/hour out of seat Inattention = # minutes continuously on task before becoming distracted

32 SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Replication Replicating research means trying the methods of a study again, but with different participants or situations, to see if the same results happen. You could introduce a small change in the study, e.g. trying the ADHD/sugar test on college students instead of elementary students.

33 SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Putting it All Together

34 TYPES OF RESEARCH: Descriptive Research Descriptive research is a systematic, objective observation of people. The goal is to provide a clear, accurate picture of people s behaviors, thoughts, and attributes. Strategies for gathering this information: Case Study: observing and gathering information to compile an in-depth study of one individual Naturalistic Observation: gathering data about behavior; watching but not intervening Surveys and Interviews: having other people report on their own attitudes and behavior

35 TYPES OF RESEARCH: Case Study Examining one individual in depth Benefit: can be a source of ideas about human nature in general Example: cases of longterm abuse and resilience (e.g. Jaycee Dugard seen here) Danger: overgeneralization from one example; Joe got better after tapping his foot, so tapping must be the key to health!

36 SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Naturalistic Observation Observing natural behavior means just watching (and taking notes), and not trying to change anything. This method can be used to study more than one individual, and to find truths that apply to a broader population.

37 SCIENTIFIC METHOD: The Survey Definition: A method of gathering information about many people s thoughts or behaviors through self-report rather than observation. Keys to getting useful information: Be careful about the wording of questions Only question randomly sampled people

38 SAMPLING AND REPRESENTATION If you want to find out something about men, you can t interview every single man on earth. Sampling saves time. You can find the ratio of colors in this jar by making sure they are well mixed (randomized) and then taking a sample. Random sampling is a technique for making sure that every individual in a population has an equal chance of being in your sample. population sample Random means that your selection of participants is driven only by chance, not by any characteristic.

39 Descriptive Research: Correlation General Definition: an observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other (thus, they are co -related) Scientific definition: a measure of how closely two factors vary together, or how well you can predict a change in one from observing a change in the other

40 Descriptive Research: Correlation The correlation coefficient is a number representing how closely and in what way two variables correlate (change together). The direction of the correlation can be positive (direct relationship; both variables increase together) or negative (inverse relationship: as one increases, the other decreases). The strength of the relationship, how tightly, predictably they vary together, is measured in a number that varies from 0.00 to +/ Guess the Correlation Coefficients Height vs. shoe size Close to +1.0 (strong positive correlation) Years in school vs. years in jail Close to -1.0 (strong negative correlation) Height vs. intelligence Close to 0.0 (no relationship, no correlation)

41 Descriptive Research: Correlation REMEMBER - CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION

42 EXPERIMENTS: Examining Cause and Effect Experimentation: manipulating one factor in a situation to determine its effect Testing the theory that ADHD = sugar: removing sugar from the diet of children with ADHD to see if it makes a difference The depression/selfesteem example: trying interventions that improve selfesteem to see if they cause a reduction in depression

43 EXPERIMENTS: The Control Group If we manipulate a variable in an experimental group of people, and then we see an effect, how do we know the change wouldn t have happened anyway? We solve this problem by comparing this group to a control group, a group that is the same in every way except the one variable we are changing. Example: two groups of children have ADHD, but only one group stops eating refined sugar. How do make sure the control group is really identical in every way to the experimental group? By using random assignment: randomly selecting some study participants to be assigned to the control group or the experimental group.

44 EXPERIMENTS: Sampling vs. Assignment Random sampling is how you get a pool of research participants that represents the population you re trying to learn about. Random assignment of participants to control or experimental groups is how you control all variables except the one you re manipulating. First you sample, then you sort (assign)

45 EXPERIMENTS: Placebo Effect How do we make sure that the experimental group doesn t experience an effect because they expect to experience it? How can we make sure both groups expect to get better, but only one gets the real intervention being studied? Placebo effect: experimental effects that are caused by expectations about the intervention

46 EXPERIMENTS: Defining the Variables The variable we are able to manipulate independently of what the other variables are doing is called the independent variable (IV). The variable we expect to experience a change which depends on the manipulation we re doing is called the dependent variable (DV). If we test the ADHD/sugar hypothesis: Sugar = Cause = Independent Variable ADHD = Effect = Dependent Variable The other variables that might have an effect on the dependent variable are confounding variables. Did more hyper kids get to choose to be in the sugar group? Then their preference for sugar would be a confounding variable. (preventing this problem: random assignment).

47 EXPERIMENTS: Examining Cause and Effect Comparing Research Methods Research Method Basic Purpose Descriptive To observe and record behavior Correlational Experimental To detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another To explore causeeffect How Conducted Perform case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations Compute statistical association, sometimes among survey responses Manipulate one or more factors; randomly assign some to control group What is Manipulated Nothing Nothing The independent variable(s) Weaknesses No control of variables; single cases may be misleading Does not specify cause-effect; one variable predicts another but this does not mean one causes the other Sometimes not possible for practical or ethical reasons; results may not generalize to other contexts

48 EXPERIMENTS: Examining Cause and Effect After finding a pattern in our data that shows a difference between one group and another, we can ask more questions. Is the difference reliable: can we use this result to generalize or to predict the future behavior of the broader population? Is the difference significant: could the result have been caused by random/ chance variation between the groups? How to achieve reliability: Nonbiased sampling: Make sure the sample that you studied is a good representation of the population you are trying to learn about. Consistency: Check that the data (responses, observations) is not too widely varied to show a clear pattern. Many data points: Don t try to generalize from just a few cases, instances, or responses. When have you found statistically significant difference (e.g. between experimental and control groups)? When your data is reliable AND When the difference between the groups is large (e.g. the data s distribution curves do not overlap too much).

49 EXPERIMENTS: Examining Cause and Effect END OF CHAPTER 1