Developmental Students Sources of Self-Efficacy and the University Academic Support Program Impact. Michelle Kiser, B.A., M.S.

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1 Developmental Students Sources of Self-Efficacy and the University Academic Support Program Impact by Michelle Kiser, B.A., M.S. A Dissertation In HIGHER EDUCATION Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Approved Dr. Roy Rodriguez Chair Dr. Judi Henry Committee Member Dr. Tara Stevens Committee Member Fred Hartmeister, J.D., Ed.D., MBA Dean of the Graduate School May, 2008

2 Copyright 2008, Michelle Dawn Kiser

3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my most gracious Lord above. Without him looking down upon me, I would have never have made this goal a reality. To my loving brother Michael Joseph, never thought that I would be here did you? Well, I made it and man I could have used you while doing it. You were constantly in my mind and I knew that you would always be proud of me and there are so many things that I would like to say to you, but cannot. I know that you are looking down on me with your smile and your amazing laugh that I constantly hear in the back of my mind. I love you and miss you so much, thank you for your support from up above!!! I would like to thank Dr. Rodriguez for his continuous support and guidance. He always believed in me and assured me that I would get this done. I would also like to thank Dr. Stevens for her patience when all that I wanted to do was scream because statistics were not my favorite part of the paper. Finally, Dr. Henry was always there to tell me to keep my head up and encouraged me continuously. I would like to thank my parents for always believing in me and knowing that I would eventually get out of school for good. I did it and love you for everything that you have done for me; especially for your continuous support and encouragement!!! Finally, words cannot express how thankful I am to my loving husband, Beau. He has been with me from the very beginning of this adventure and through it all and we both survived. I could not have done it without him to support my every move and to encourage me to keep my head up. I love him and I am very blessed to have such a wonderful man in my life. Next, the three most beautiful boys in my life, Bryce, Christian, and Coldon, thank you so much for greeting me with a smile everyday when I came home when all I wanted to do was cry. You are the most valuable three ii

4 boys that God has blessed me with. I am the proudest MOM in the world because I have three boys that supported me, took my angry mood and turned it into a SMILE!! I love you all very much and I could not have survived without those three beautiful smiles and laughs everyday!! You are the reason why I can continue each day!! The person that I would like to thank next is Linda Larrabee. If it were not for her, I seriously think that I would have pulled my hair completely out. Thank you for listening to me yell and helping calm me down. You were always the one that made me come back down to earth when all I wanted to do was give up and scream. Thank you for reading every single word of this paper and making it better with your editing skills. In addition, Dr. Liz Hall- Burns, thank you from the bottom of my heart for being part of the final day of glory, the defense. I truly have always looked up to you for guidance and you have never failed me. I truly believe that you were somewhat of a silent mentor. Thank you for your thoughts and support. Finally, I truly appreciate everyone that was involved in this adventure. I know that I would not have been able to make it through without you. So THANK YOU. iii

5 Table of Contents Acknowledgements Abstract Illustration of Path Model List of Tables List of Figures ii vii x xi xii Chapter I: Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Statement of Problem 3 Purpose of Study 5 Theoretical Prospective/Framework 7 Research Question 10 Significance of Study 10 Definition of Terms 11 Assumption of Study 14 Delimitation of Study 15 Limitation of Study 15 Summary 16 Chapter II: Review of Literature 17 Introduction 17 Social Cognitive Theory 18 Developmental Education Students 20 Self-Efficacy 22 Verbal Persuasion 29 Mastery Experience 30 Grade Point Average 33 Physiological Feedback 37 Vicarious Experiences 39 Self-Determination Theory 42 Autonomy 42 Competence 43 Relatedness 43 Cognitive Evaluation Theory 44 Motivation 46 Theories of Motivation 46 Types of Motivation 47 Intrinsic Motivation 47 iv

6 Extrinsic Motivation 49 Amotivation 50 Social Sources 53 Success and Failure 53 Competition and Cooperation 54 Motivation Climate 57 Consequences 58 Outcome Expectations 61 Summary 63 Chapter III: Methodology 64 Research Design 64 Population 67 Instrumentation 68 Student Appraisal Inventory 68 Academic Motivation Scale 70 Research question 72 Confidentiality 73 Procedure for Data Collection 74 Statistical Analysis 76 Summary 79 Chapter IV: Results 80 Introduction 80 Data Screening and Description of Sample 81 Personal Demographic Questions 81 Utilization of Campus Services by Demographics 84 Research Question 85 Data Analysis 85 Means and Standard Deviation 85 Reliability and Validity 87 Factor Analysis 88 Correlation 90 Path Analysis 91 Path Analysis for Total Sample 91 Summary 93 Chapter V: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations 95 Introduction 95 Research Summary 95 Summary of Findings 96 Good fit of the Model for Total Sample 97 v

7 Discussion 100 Implications 103 Recommendations 104 Conclusions 106 Bibliography 107 Appendix 116 Appendix A: Model 117 Appendix B: Path Model with Parameters for the Total Sample 118 Appendix C: Letter to Participants 119 Appendix D: Demographic Questions 120 Appendix E: Academic Motivation Scale 121 Appendix F: Student Appraisal Inventory Scale 124 Appendix G: Letter of Permission to Dr. Rebecca Owens 130 Appendix H: Approval Letter from Dr. Rebecca Owens 136 Appendix I: Protection of Human Subjects Committee Approval Letter 137 vi

8 ABSTRACT The university academic support program has been a combined program that provides special services to all students across university campuses. Those services include tutoring, academic advisors, career services, counselors, and transition classes specifically for incoming students. For the sake of the current study university academic support program will be used as the term which represents all services available. These services are spread across the Texas Tech University campus and campuses across the United States. However, the University academic support programs roles have not been studied or distinctly identified through research studies in regards to developmental students sources of self-efficacy and motivation. A search of relevant databases, such as EBSCO host, was completed and the results yielded many articles or research studies on the university academic support programs at the university level, but there were few articles that described the impact on, specifically, developmental students sources of self-efficacy and motivation. Since there has been very little information or research detailing the university academic support programs importance to developmental students sources of self-efficacy and motivation, a problem arose that needed to be researched. The problem explored in this study was the fact that there has not been research completed on the relationship between student services and developmental students motivation. In addition, there has been no previous research of the university academic support programs and the impact on developmental students; more specifically, there was a lack of detail concerning the verbal persuasion source in comparison to the others sources of self-efficacy in regards, to specifically developmental students. vii

9 The purpose of the current study was to evaluate whether the four sources of selfefficacy (verbal persuasions, mastery experiences, physiological feedback, and vicarious experiences) predict motivation and outcome expectations for developmental students. This was tested through a path model that posits a relation between the four sources of self-efficacy, expectations, and motivation outcomes. The purpose was based on previous research concerning the importance of the university academic support programs purpose, specifically to the developmental students at a higher education institution. Once the current research study was completed, information detailing the findings was reported to the Texas Tech University academic support program in order to provide input based on the findings of the study. Specifically, the findings were provided to the Texas Tech University academic support program in which the study was completed. Studies investigating how the sources of self-efficacy can impact developmental students academic success have not been conducted. Therefore, the justification to complete the current study included, but was not limited to, the lack of previous research, the importance of university academic support programs to the university, and to provide the findings to enhance university academic support programs. Self-efficacy, the basis for the current study, is an essential construct associated with Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986). In previous research, Social Cognitive Theory has been successfully applied to education at a university level and there has been research completed with students; however, there has not been specific research completed which dealt with developmental students and academia with regards to the sources of self-efficacy and motivation. This quantitative study seeks to answer the fundamental question, Do data obtained fit the four sources of self-efficacy model? viii

10 The methodology used in this study was path analysis. The current research study attempts to complete a study that evaluates the contribution that the university academic support program offers to developmental students attending a Higher Education institution. The model explains the developmental students sources of self-efficacy along with the developmental students motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and the developmental students outcome expectations. See Appendix A. The research question involves whether the data fits the model well; hence, the model fits the obtained data. The population includes students who are part of the Texas Success Initiative (TSI) Program and enrolled in a TSI liable course. Developmental students included freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. There were 698 students enrolled in the TSI program in the fall of Of the 698 students requested to complete the survey, 382 students responded, which is a completion rate of 54.7%. Path analysis was the research method used. In order to conduct the path analysis accurately, the six variables, verbal persuasions, mastery experience, physiological feedback, vicarious experiences, motivation, and outcome expectations, were converted to z scores. Once all the data had been converted to z scores, the data was calculated for means and standard deviations for each of the six scales. Once the data was converted, reliability and validity measures were completed. The Cronbach s alpha coefficient for the scales ranged from the lowest of.862 for the Expectation Scale to the highest of.938 for Academic Achievement Scale. Correlation for the total sample was completed, along with exploratory factor analysis. The path analysis was found to be a good fit between the data and the model. ix

11 Illustration of path model to explain developmental students sources of self-efficacy for motivation of achievement and related outcomes Verbal Persuasions (coach, peers, parents, academic support team) Motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) Mastery Experience Past Academic Achievement (Accuplacer, Asset, Maps, Compass, THEA,GPA, SAT, ACT, TAKS) Physiological Feedback Test Anxiety Vicarious Experiences Outcome Expectations (graduate, go to post grad, if successful will be prepared for life) x

12 List of Tables Table 2.1 Self determination continuum 43 Table 4.1 Summary of Participant by Gender 82 Table 4.2 Summary of Participant by Ethnicity 82 Table 4.3 Summary of Participant by Age 83 Table 4.4 Summary of Participant by Classification 83 Table 4.5 Summary of Participant by Grade Point Average 84 Table 4.6 Summary of Participant by Permission 84 Table 4.7 Summary of Participant by Use of Campus Services 85 Table 4.8 Summary of Means and Standard Deviations for Each Scale 87 Table 4.9 Summary of Internal Consistency Values for each Scale 88 Table 4.10 Total Sample Correlation Matrix 91 Table 4.11 Path Analysis Results for the Total Sample 93 xi

13 List of Figures Figure 1.1 Illustration of Path Model 7 xii

14 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The information discussed in this chapter includes: (1) introduction, (2) statement of problem, (3) purpose of study, (4) theoretical perspectives/framework, (5) research question, (6) significance of the study, (7) definition of terms, (8) assumptions of study, (9) delimitations of study, (10) limitations of study, and (11) summary. Introduction The university academic support program makes a contribution to Higher Education by providing developmental students with the resources needed to be successful in academics. These resources are used by students while they are attending the university, and are considered very helpful. Those services include tutoring, academic advisors, career services, and many more. For the sake of the current study, university academic support program will be the term used to describe all services available to students. Specifically, developmental students have an academic support program that encourages them in their academic progress, advises them with concerning their current coursework, and supports the decisions they make in their academic college careers. In addition, the university academic support program provides developmental students with student services, academic support, retention (tools to stay enrolled in the university), recruitment and recognition (ways stay involved in the university), and career planning and placement. Since these services have been offered, the university academic support program has been a key factor in the success of developmental students in the classroom. 1

15 In addition to being provided student services, students also have their own responsibilities. All students have many requirements to complete before being able to enroll as students at any university campus. Those requirements include: completing all admission applications and requirements, completing testing requirements for Texas Success Initiative Program, completing New Student Orientation, and meeting with their academic advisors before being eligible to enroll in classes. These requirements are considered to be admission requirements. In addition to admission requirements, all students have to meet certain grade point averages (GPA) in order to be able to continue enrollment in the university. Therefore, students have been encouraged to maintain a high grade point average (GPA), ask questions as needed, and inform the academic program of any academic problems as soon as possible. For the current study, developmental students will be studied. Developmental students are students who are defined as deficient in reading, writing, and/or mathematics. Developmental students who do not pass all areas of the required standardized exam in reading, writing, and/or mathematics are considered to be developmental students. Developmental students are required to complete a sequence of courses in the area or areas in which the developmental students are deficient while also completing college level coursework. Developmental coursework does not count as college credit; therefore students will add additional courses to their schedules in order to be considered full time students. The support system the university provides for developmental students has become very important to students success in the classroom. In addition to the support system, motivation to learn is another area of concern. Students in college need to have some type of motivation to learn in order to be 2

16 successful in college. In order to value motivation to learn students have to be creative. The value of motivation to learn for developmental students is ultimately difficult. Developmental students are required to enroll in a developmental course and enroll in college courses to be a full time student. Developmental students often find motivation to learning very difficult because the developmental students not only have to concentrate on his/her college level coursework; but, in addition, the students have to also take extra time to complete the developmental coursework. The developmental coursework is often times harder because it is an area in which the student is deficient and requires more time to understand. Therefore, successful developmental students have to learn the importance of motivation to learn, due to the requirement of completing developmental coursework and college level coursework concurrently. Statement of Problem University academic support programs have become an important addition to university campuses throughout the United States of America (USA). However, the university academic support programs roles have not been studied or distinctly identified through research studies in regards to developmental students sources of self-efficacy and motivation. A search of relevant databases, such as EBSCO host, was completed and the results yielded many articles or research studies on the university academic support programs at the university level, but there were few articles that described the impact on, specifically, developmental students sources of self-efficacy and motivation at the university level. Since there has been very little information or research detailing the university academic support programs importance to developmental students in regards to sources of self-efficacy and motivation, an area arose that necessitated investigation. The 3

17 problem explored in this study was the fact there has not been research completed on the relationship between student services and developmental students motivation. In addition, there has been no previous research of the university academic support programs and the impact on developmental students; more specifically, there was a lack of detail concerning the impact that the verbal persuasions (instructor, peers, parents, and advisors), mastery performance (GPA, THEA, Accuplacer, Compass, Asset, Maps, SAT scores, ACT, and TAKS), physiological feedback (specifically test anxiety), vicarious experiences (success of others or failure of others), motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic), and outcome expectations (graduate, attend post graduate school, and prepare for life) has on developmental students sources of self-efficacy. University academic support programs have been detailed as providing support to developmental students in many ways, but do those detailed ways produce a successful student in the classroom with positive sources of self-efficacy from those factors of influences? The question has remained unanswered, but the information obtained within this research allowed the researcher to address whether the university academic support program was associated with positive motivation outcomes. Developmental students are influenced by many different areas; those include parents, instructors, academic counselors, advisors, and peers. The people that influence developmental students are an important aspect of this research. The verbal persuasions these influences provide to the developmental students have the ability to weigh heavily on the decisions that the developmental students make each day. In addition, the mastery experience helps raise or lower the students sources of self-efficacy. If the developmental student was successful at a task, the developmental student would have 4

18 higher sources of self-efficacy than if the developmental student fails at the task. Physiological feedback was another factor explored in this study, to determine if a person s perceptions of the developmental students performance in the classroom would alter his/her sources of self-efficacy. Finally, vicarious experiences were researched in the current study. The research found in this area would support or not support the findings. Mainly, the research would provide information to support whether the developmental students sources of self-efficacy would be affected by motivation. In addition, developmental students motivation and expected outcomes were researched to define intrinsic and extrinsic motivation along with the outcomes expected by the developmental students after completing their college education. Purpose of Study Model In order to better understand the purpose of the study, the following model needs to be explained. Readers should refer to the model below or appendix A as needed. Developmental students have a certain amount of self-efficacy which has been affected by the four sources of self-efficacy. Those sources include: verbal persuasions, mastery experiences, physiological experiences, and vicarious experiences (Bandura, 1994). In addition to the sources of self-efficacy, motivation and outcome expectations were an important element of the model. Developmental students have certain beliefs about their capabilities in the classroom. Those capabilities produce a certain level of performance, which influences other events in the developmental student s life (Bandura, 1994). The influences can be positive or negative. The developmental students extrinsic or intrinsic motivation is also influenced by the sources of self-efficacy. Based on the findings, 5

19 developmental students have a feeling of intrinsic motivation which in turn comes from the previous interactions with the sources of self-efficacy which, are positive in the model. Motivation also correlates positively with verbal persuasions, mastery experience, physiological feedback, and vicarious experiences. 6

20 Verbal Persuasions (instructor, peers, parents, advisor) Motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) Mastery Experience Past Academic Achievement (Accuplacer, Asset, Maps, Compass, THEA,GPA, SAT, ACT, TAKS) Physiological Feedback Test Anxiety Vicarious Experiences Outcome Expectations (graduate, go to post grad, if successful will be prepared for life) Figure 1.1: Illustration of path model to explain developmental students sources of self-efficacy for motivation of achievement and related outcomes 7

21 The purpose of the current study was to evaluate if the four sources of selfefficacy (verbal persuasions, mastery experiences, physiological feedback, and vicarious experiences) predict motivation and outcome expectations for developmental students. This was tested through a path model that posits a relationship between the four sources of self-efficacy, expectations, and motivation outcomes. The purpose was based on previous research concerning the importance of the university academic support programs purpose specifically to the developmental students at a higher education institution. Once the current research study was completed, information detailing the findings was reported to the Texas Tech University academic support programs in order to provide input. Specifically, the findings were provided to the Texas Tech University academic support programs in which the study was completed. The ability to understand the importance of verbal persuasion was vital to the current study because developmental students may obtain motivation from his/her peers, family, advisors, or instructors. Developmental students that obtain higher motivation from the verbal persuasions are more likely to have higher intrinsic motivation which leads to the developmental student being successful in the classroom. The sources affecting self-efficacy needed to be explored in depth in order to specify which factor worked best for developmental students success in academia. In order have successful developmental students; institutions have methods for tracking performance, but not explicit techniques for improving performance in specific areas. The institutions lack a clear path for improving academic performance. In a successful program, the institution, first, needs to find out why the developmental students are not academically successful; the study of self-efficacy offers one route to 6

22 those answers. The current study was a preliminary attempt to obtain partial information about developmental students and their perceptions. The study researched university academic support programs at Texas Tech University in order to assess the sources that affect self-efficacy in developmental students. In addition, the effectiveness of the program was also an important factor. Developmental students were asked if they had goals of obtaining college degrees or just furthering their education; which led the researcher to information about the expected outcomes of developmental students. Theoretical Perspectives/Framework The basis for the current study is self-efficacy, which is an important concept of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986). In previous research, Social Cognitive Theory has been successfully applied to education at a university level and there has been research completed with students. However, there has not been specific research completed which dealt with developmental students and academia. An important factor within Social Cognitive Theory is the self-system in which students apply control over his/her thoughts, feelings, and actions (Bandura, 2001). Social Cognitive Theory helps to explain how personalization and modeling are being used to develop and improve the means of human learning (Bandura, 1977). The impact that the sources of self-efficacy have on students performance in academia has been shown through studies using the Social Cognitive Theory; however not specifically developmental students (Bandura, 1977). Developmental students have a wide variety of ways in which they engage in academia; therefore, the sources of self-efficacy play an important role in their academic success (Bandura, 1977; 1986). Self-efficacy is defined as one's self-judgments of 7

23 personal capabilities to initiate and successfully perform specified tasks at designated levels, expend greater effort, and persevere in the face of adversity (Bandura, 1977; 1986). According to Social Cognitive Theory, self-efficacy beliefs are the most significant liaison of human activity (Bandura, 1977). Within Social Cognitive Theory, the behavior that one exhibits is influenced by cognitive and environmental sources (Bandura, 1986). Cognitive sources also include other personal sources such as motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. Bandura (1986) suggests that behavioral, cognitive, and environmental situations interact. With this interaction, the triadic reciprocality was created (Bandura, 1986). Developmental students methods for changing their perceptions of self-efficacy depend on the four sources of self-efficacy. The four sources of self-efficacy include: verbal persuasions, mastery experience, physiological feedback, and vicarious experiences (Bandura, 1977). The four sources interact with human nature to create a developmental students self-efficacy. Developmental students academic performances, which are the behavioral sources, in a university classroom are influenced by how the developmental students are affected cognitively by the instruction techniques the instructor chooses (Bandura, 1986). This cycle is reoccurring and is dependent upon on itself for repetition. In order to discover what arbitrates knowledge and action of self-efficacy, the way that people judge themselves on their skills and capability to complete determined actions and the performance component of self-efficacy has been an important factor (Bandura, 1986). Bandura (1977; 1986) stated that self perceptions have greatly influenced the idea that a challenging situation can be completed successfully. Within 8

24 the population, the participants have to believe that they have the coping strategies to deal with those challenges; if the participants believe that they do not have those coping strategies, the challenge will be unsuccessful (Bandura, 1986). Therefore, the current study relied on the four sources of self-efficacy. The first source of self-efficacy that was researched was verbal persuasions. This source includes influence from parents, peers, instructors, and advisors. The second researched source was mastery experiences. Mastery experiences included academic performances on standardized tests such as the Accuplacer, Texas Higher Education Assessment (THEA), SAT reasoning test and ACT assessment along with the developmental students grade point averages (GPA). The third researched source was physiological feedback, which included information from developmental students concerning test anxiety. The final investigated source was vicarious experiences which included sources of information provided by social models and others with whom the developmental students have interaction about some part of his/her college career. For example, those sources were either successful in college or were not successful in college. Motivation was another area of the model that was important to the current study. Motivation is defined as the state of being inspired and the why of the behavior. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations were part of the model that was investigated. Intrinsic motivation is defined as the reason for executing an activity for oneself, out of interest, and for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from performing it (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Extrinsic motivation has been defined as one was motivated by external sources, as opposed to the internal drivers of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation drives one to do things for tangible rewards or pressures, rather than for the fun of it (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Finally, outcome expectations were the 9

25 last area of the model being researched. Basically outcome expectations are those outcomes the developmental students anticipate from college. Developmental students had expected outcomes or goals for their attendance at college. Those outcomes included graduating, pursuing post graduate studies, and getting prepared for life after college. In conclusion, the current study will: (a) add to the current literature by placing particular emphasis on the developmental students that have been previously excluded, (b) provide useful information for the university academic support programs to use, and (c) further expanded the extensive literature on the sources of self-efficacy and Bandura s framework to the domain of developmental student academia. Research question In the current study, the following research question was used to explore the impact the university academic support programs had on the developmental students perceived competence: Research Question Do the data obtained fit the four sources of self-efficacy model? Significance of the Study Studies investigating how the sources of self-efficacy can impact developmental students expectations and motivation have not been conducted. Therefore, the justification to complete the current study included, but was not limited to, the lack of previous research, the importance of university academic support programs to the university, and to provide the findings for enhancing university academic support programs. The researcher believes that the analyzed data from the research question will benefit the university academic support programs and improve the programs abilities to 10

26 lead students into a successful academic career. The researcher s intent for this study was to allow university academic support program at Texas Tech University, along with similar programs, to benefit from the results and to allow the results to be advantageous for other institutions. The current study provided research and justification for having successful university academic support programs. The researcher also believed that the findings within this study would enhance the depth of the previous research concerning self-efficacy and the four sources of selfefficacy. In addition the analysis would add to the research concerning motivation and expected outcomes of students, specifically developmental students. This study was different than other self-efficacy studies because it specifically focuses on developmental students sources of self-efficacy along with his/her motivation and expected outcomes of college. Definition of Terms For this study, the researcher defined terms with which it was important to be acquainted when reviewing the study. Definitions for the key terms were given to assist in understanding the study material more fully. Amotivation the absence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. When individuals do not understand what was causing his/her behavior or felt no sense of control over the cause of his/her actions (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Beliefs about Success/Failure According to Weiner s causal attribution theory (1979, 1986), ability effort task difficulty, and luck are perceived as association sources for an 11

27 individual s explanation of success and failure. This term may also be defined as the manner in which students interpret his/her successes and failures. Cooperation/Competition a social factor that can affect the intrinsic motivation of a developmental student. Developmental Student a student enrolled in a college or university as a full time or part time male or female student and part of the Texas Success Initiative Developmental Skills Program which is a Texas state mandated program. These students are not eligible to complete college level courses in either reading, writing, or mathematics until the student has completed developmental (remedial) education in the area in which the student is deficient. Students are considered to be developmental students when they do not have the skills necessary to be successful in a college level reading, writing, or mathematics course. Extrinsic Motivation - Extrinsic motivation has been defined as one impetus from external sources, as opposed to the internal drivers of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation drives one to do things for tangible rewards or pressures, rather than for the fun of it (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Full Time Status Category defied as a student enrolled in 12 or more hours each semester. Intrinsic Motivation It can be defined as the reason for executing an activity for oneself, out of interest, and for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from performing it (Deci & Ryan, 1985). It can also be defined as the force behind performing an activity for the 12

28 pleasure and the satisfaction that one experiences while learning, exploring, or trying to understand something new. Introjected Regulation action was controlled by rules set by one s self and a form of control from within the self (Goudas & Biddle, 1995). Mastery Experience - Mastery experience can be defined as the interpreted effect of performance completed purposively (Bandura, 1994). Motivation there are several definitions for motivation, but for this study the definition will be the state of being inspired and the why of the behavior. Motivation Climate the manner in which the environment influences a developmental student, while being motivated to perform a certain activity. For example, climate can be provided by the instructor, the advisor, or peers. Need for autonomy persons needs to feel that they are the originators of actions, which also encompasses the notion of choice (decharms, 1968). Need for competence refers to individuals desires to interact proficiently or effectively with their environments (Kowal & Fortier, 1999). Need for relatedness refers to individuals desires to feel connected with others and to experience a sense of belonging in particular social context (Kowal & Fortier, 1999). Physiological Feedback - refer s to physical reactions, such as anxiety, stress, arousal, fatigue. Self determined motivation characterized by engaging in an activity because of personal choice. 13

29 Self-efficacy peoples viewpoints about their competence to construct selected stages of performance that exercise authority over events that affect their lives (Bandura, 1994). University academic support program refers to the student services available to all students on the Texas Tech University Campus. Those services include: academic advisors, counseling, tutoring, and career counseling. Verbal Persuasion - Verbal persuasions are created when an individual makes the decision to listen to the messages that others put across to the individual (Bandura, 1994). Those persuasions can be positive or negative. Vicarious Experiences - Observing peers, or peer models, especially those with perceived similar capabilities, perform target performances, which results in evaluative information about one's personal capabilities (Bandura, 1997). Assumptions of study The following were the assumptions of this research: 1. The developmental students (see developmental students in definition of terms) answered completely all the survey questions with honesty and accuracy. 2. Each developmental student completed only one survey. 3. The researcher was provided with accurate demographic data by the developmental student, upon completion of the survey. 4. The researcher was provided with accurate and complete enrollment information by the institution involved in this study. 14

30 Delimitations of the study The following were delimitations of this research: 1. The researcher chose to use only one major university in the west Texas area. 2. The researcher chose to limit the survey participants to developmental students enrolled at Texas Tech University and cannot generalize beyond that population. 3. The researcher will only use the definition listed for motivation. 4. The participants of the study were restricted to the west Texas area because of the limited funds available for the study. 5. The university chosen was of a public sector. Limitations of the study The following were limitations of this research: 1. There were limited funds available for this study; therefore, gathering information by using the survey method through the internet was most cost effective. 2. Because of the nature of the study, developmental students enrolled in the west Texas university were the only people able to respond to the survey. 3. The research findings have limited generalizability, because the results of the study were generalized to this particular population and not beyond. 4. The research knowledge was recognized only within a certain set of values that were set forth during this study. 15

31 5. The researcher made the assumption that the developmental students completed the survey honestly. 6. The researcher will not be manipulating the independent variable. 7. The researcher will assume to be measuring without error. Summary In conclusion, this study evaluated the four sources of self-efficacy and the influence self-efficacy had on developmental students motivation and outcome expectations. The study was completed to evaluate the importance of the four sources of self-efficacy through testing a path model. There has been strong theoretical research and empirical support for completion of research in this area. The remainder of the dissertation includes four chapters. Chapter II is a review of pertinent literature related to self-efficacy, the sources of self-efficacy, developmental students, outcome expectation, self determination, student motivation toward academics, perceived competence of developmental students, and autonomy supportive vs. controlled academic environments. Chapter III will address the methodology used in the study. Chapter IV will give information on the analyzed data. Finally, the conclusions and recommendations for further study will be presented in Chapter V. 16

32 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction Developmental students are challenged to keep their grade point averages (GPAs) between 2.0 and 4.0, refrain from having test anxiety, and strive to have positive intrinsic motivation while being required to complete a non-credit developmental course. The Social Cognitive Theory, which has been applied to education, has shown that the sources of self-efficacy can lead students to be successful or unsuccessful; however, the research is not specifically related to developmental students. Based on the Social Cognitive Theory, aspects of the four sources of self-efficacy (verbal persuasions, mastery experience, physiological feedback, and vicarious experiences) along with motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and outcome expectations were explored. The research completed on the sources of self-efficacy in developmental students of academia was discussed along with the information on the contributions that the university academic support program brings to Higher Education, specifically, to developmental students at a higher education institution. Finally, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and outcome expectations of the developmental students will be discussed. Chapter II includes research on the Social Cognitive Theory, self-efficacy background, and sources of self-efficacy. Social Cognitive Theory includes a detailed background of the theoretical framework and the concept of self-efficacy. The sources of self-efficacy discussed include verbal persuasion, mastery experience, physiological feedback, and vicarious feedback. The next section includes sources of motivation; specifically, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Within this section, aspects of 17

33 developmental students motivation and previous research were included. Finally, the section concluded with outcome expectations. Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Theory explains how human learning can be improved. People continually want to take control of the events that consistently affect their lives on a daily basis (Bandura, 1977). People often feel bad about themselves or try to correct their faulty self-beliefs and habits, but often are not successful. The feelings can be improved with the use of the Social Cognitive Theory, but can also alter other areas such as improving academic skills and practices and altering environments to promote better working places (Bandura, 1977). By altering these areas the Social Cognitive Theory works directly with the personal sources, the behaviors of the developmental students, and the environmental sources. Once the areas are altered, a positive change occurs. Bandura (1986) created a model that showed the notion of reciprocal determinism. This model analyzed (a) the personal sources such as cognitive, affective, and biological events, (b) behavior, and (c) the influences from the environment invent interactions that, in turn, form the triadic reciprocality model (Bandura, 1986). Social Cognitive Theory has been defined as a triadic, dynamic, and reciprocal interaction of personal sources, behavior, and the environment, which Bandura (1986) refers to as Reciprocal Determinism. This continuous model allows for improvement to be directed at the personal, environmental, or behavioral sources that need to be addressed. Research has shown that cognition plays a significant role in human capability to create reality, self-regulate, encode information, and perform behaviors (Bandura, 1986). Social Cognitive Theory behavior is exclusively determined by each of the three sources 18

34 (Bandura, 1986). Social Cognitive Theory maintains the behaviorist concept that response consequences mediate behavior (Bandura, 1986). Therefore, the reaction consequences of a behavior are used to form expectations of behavioral outcomes. Basically, it is the ability to form the expectations that gives a person the potential to foresee the outcomes of his/her behavior, before the behavior has been completed. However, the Social Cognitive Theory speculates that most behavior has been learned vicariously (Bandura, 1989). Social Cognitive Theory, which emphasizes the importance of one s cognitions, advocates that the mind has been an active force that creates one s certainty, selectively encodes information, performs behavior on the basis of values and expectations, and imposes structure on cognitions own actions. During feedback and reciprocity, a one s own realism has been shaped by the relationship between the environment and one s cognitions. In addition, cognitions modify over time as a purpose of maturation and experience. Basically, the comprehension of the processes involved in one s creation of reality allows human behavior to be understood, predicted, and changed. There are basic assumptions of Social Cognition Theory that are very important to note. One assumption of Social Cognition Theory deals with learning. Learning happens while observing another completing the desired task; one observes and learns from the other. Learning has been known as an internal process that may or may not be reflected in the behavior being disseminated. In addition, learning can result through experiences which are recognized in Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986). Social Cognitive Theory has a view that people have self-beliefs that facilitates how they think about themselves and control of how they feel and act. Self-efficacy has 19

35 been defined as a person s beliefs about what he or she is capable of doing. This leads to the next important topic of the Social Cognitive Theory. Developmental Education Students The next area of the model concentrates on developmental students, who are the subjects of the current study. First, a definition of developmental students should be addressed. Developmental students are students that are enrolled in a college or university and were not successful in completing the state approved tests in basic reading, writing, and/or mathematics. To give some background, the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board requires that all universities and colleges have an instructional program that is designed to guarantee that all students attending a public institution of higher education in the state of Texas have the reading, writing, and mathematics skills needed in order to perform satisfactory college level work. Students who do not meet those requirements are placed in a developmental program named Texas Success Initiative Program (TSI). Texas Tech University established a plan for assessing and placing undergraduate students entering the institution who did not possess the skills needed to be successful in college level reading, writing, and mathematics. The plan has been filed with the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board and, if updates occur the plan is revised yearly. The TSI program develops the curriculum and instruction for the developmental reading, writing, and mathematics courses in which the students to enroll each semester. There are five components of the TSI program: testing (THEA, Accuplacer, Compass, Asset, Maps), advisement, placement, remediation, and student progress evaluation. As students apply to the university, the students are advised to complete the 20

36 testing before visiting the campus so the TSI program will be able to place the student in the proper developmental course, if needed. Once testing has been completed and the student has established that enrollment in the TSI program is required, the student is advised by a TSI advisor. This is recommended for occurance before meeting with the students major advisor. The student and the TSI advisor sit and talk about the students skills and which developmental class the student will be required to complete during the current semester. Once the student has been advised, the student will then enroll in the course and must complete the course with a grade of C or better. The TSI advisor will also explain the sequence of courses that the student will need to complete in order to be considered TSI Successful by Texas Tech University. The TSI advisor gives the student the option of re-taking a TSI equivalent exam if the student would prefer to do so and is able to pass the exam. If the student passes the exam, the student will not be required to complete developmental courses in the area in which the student was successful. The TSI Program has been a very important program to universities and colleges across the state. Students who come from high school and do not have the skills necessary to complete college-level reading, writing, and mathematics courses successfully, also known as under prepared students, are placed in the TSI Program to gain the necessary skills. Without the TSI program in place, there is a strong belief that there would be many students that would not have the opportunity to obtain a college degree because they do not have the basic skills necessary to do so. Developmental students have different requirements than those that are not required to complete developmental coursework. Developmental students are required to enroll in his/her specified developmental course each semester and the course does not count toward the 21

37 student s GPA or college credit hours. Therefore, if a student has enrolled in twelve hours plus the developmental course, the student is actually completing coursework for fifteen hours. Developmental students need to have more motivation and determination because they need to complete the developmental course successfully in order to enroll in college level reading, writing, or mathematics courses. If the student does not obtain a grade of C or better each semester during his/her sequence of courses, the developmental student is required to complete the course again. As one can see, developmental students are a specific group of students that are in need of special attention. This consideration is to provide the students skills in reading, writing, and/or mathematics in order for the developmental student to be successful in college level coursework. Developmental students were an important part of the current study and the characteristics of this type of student are important to the current study. Being able to determine the self-efficacy and motivation of developmental students will offer more insight to developmental students and add to the current research. Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy Background Albert Bandura (1977) introduced the beliefs in one s capacity to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (p.193), commonly known as self-efficacy perceptions. Since the introduction of self-efficacy perceptions by Bandura (1977), there have been numerous research projects completed in areas that demonstrate self-efficacy such as motivation, performance, and efficacy judgments in human behavior (Bandura, 1997). Some examples the research include, performance in sports, political participation, smoking, academic achievement, teaching, and adherence 22

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