Body Image 6 (2009) Contents lists available at ScienceDirect. Body Image. journal homepage:

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1 Body Image 6 (2009) Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Body Image journal homepage: Internalization of messages from society and perfectionism as predictors of male body image Debbie L. Grammas *, Jonathan P. Schwartz Department of Educational Psychology, University of Houston, 491 Farish Hall, Houston, TX 77204, USA ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history: Received 24 April 2008 Received in revised form 19 September 2008 Accepted 3 October 2008 Keywords: Male body image Media Perfectionism Societal messages The purpose of this study was to examine predictors of male body image dissatisfaction, specifically ethnicity, societal factors and a personality variable. A total of 202 college males (37.3% Asian, 27.7% Caucasian, 14.5% Hispanic, and 13.6% African American) completed measures of perfectionism, internalization of societal messages, and a multidimensional measure of male body attitude. The results indicated that an Asian ethnic identity, socially prescribed perfectionism, and internalizing societal messages were predictors of muscle dissatisfaction. Socially prescribed perfectionism and internalization were the only predictors of low body fat dissatisfaction. Ethnicity, perfectionism and internalization were not predictive of height dissatisfaction. Unique aspects of perfectionism appear to predict specific body image dissatisfaction in men. ß 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction Millions of men are secretly suffering from what Pope, Phillips, and Olivardia (2000) call the Adonis complex, an obsession with meeting culturally constructed male body image ideals. Body image is a complex construct that consists of one s attitudes (such as evaluation and investment in appearance) and perceptions of his or her body (Cash, 2002). This obsession has led to an increase in eating disorders, usage of steroids and protein supplements, muscle dysmorphia (pathological dissatisfaction with one s perceived amount of muscle mass), compulsive exercise, shame, and low self-esteem (Cafri, Strauss, & Thompson, 2002; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004). One might be surprised by the number of men who are suffering from body image concerns as the majority of research focuses on women and body esteem (Pope et al., 2000). Among women, the internalization of society s ideal standard of beauty (thinness) has been linked to body dissatisfaction, low feelings of self-worth, and eating disorders (Cash, 2002). Perfectionism has also been associated with body image disturbances and eating disturbances in women, as they may feel pressure to meet the unrealistic standards of beauty set by society (Hewitt, Flett, & Ediger, 1995). Are these same variables associated with body image dissatisfaction in * Corresponding author. address: debbiegrammas@juno.com (D.L. Grammas). men? Researching these factors could help mental health professionals become more aware of possible sources of poor male body image and guide intervention. The focus of the current study will be to examine the relationship among internalization of society s ideal standard of beauty for men, perfectionism, and male body attitude. Body dissatisfaction in males Body dissatisfaction in females has increased over the past few decades (Cash, Morrow, Hrabosky, & Perry, 2004; Garner, 1997; Sondhaus, Kurtz, & Strube, 2001). Research comparing body image in men over the same time period has produced inconsistent results. Some studies indicated that male body image satisfaction appeared to remain constant over the past few decades (Cash et al., 2004; Sondhaus et al., 2001), while an increase in dissatisfaction was found in others (Garner, 1997). Recently there has been an increase in research indicating that the standard for an optimal male body appearance is changing (Leit, Pope, & Gray, 1999; Morry & Staska, 2001; Thompson & Cafri, 2007). Male models that appeared in Playgirl magazine between the years of 1973 and 1997 have become more muscular and less fat over time. Seven percent of the models had a Fat Free Mass Index (FFMI) greater than 25 (Leit et al., 1999). This is typically unachievable without the use of steroids, thus, one might wonder if there is an increased use of steroids in males as the ideal male becomes more muscular. In addition, the muscularity of action figure toys, professional wresters, and movie stars have increased /$ see front matter ß 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi: /j.bodyim

2 32 D.L. Grammas, J.P. Schwartz / Body Image 6 (2009) dramatically over the years, giving young boys the message that the ideal male is muscular (Thompson & Cafri, 2007; Pope, Olivardia, Gruber, & Borowiecki, 1999). There has been a growing body of literature indicating that the standard for an optimal male body is becoming more muscular (Leit et al., 1999; Morry & Staska, 2001; Thompson & Cafri, 2007). A significant number of college men thought the ideal male and the average male had more muscle and less fat than they had (Cafri et al., 2002; Olivardia et al., 2004). The perceived female ideal of the male body was significantly more muscular and less fat than the type women actually preferred. This male female discrepancy may be due to the media portraying men as more muscular in men s magazines versus women s magazines (Frederick, Fessler, & Haselton, 2004). Similar results were found in boys between the ages of 11 and 17 (Pope et al., 2000). Although there is a growing body of research on male body image dissatisfaction, a lack of cultural diversity has been a limitation of several studies (McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenary, 2005; Stanford & McCabe, 2005; Vartanian, Giant, & Passino, 2001). The current body of research examining body image concerns with men of different cultures has lead to inconsistent findings (Ricciardelli, McCabe, Williams, & Thompson, 2007). African American men were shown to be more satisfied with their body and have higher body esteem than Caucasian men (Miller et al., 2000; Smith, Thompson, Raczynski, & Hilner, 1997). One study indicated that Asian men have greater body dissatisfaction than Caucasians (Barnett, Keel, & Conoscenti, 2001). In other studies there were no differences in the amount of body dissatisfaction, body esteem, or evaluation of appearance when comparing African American, Caucasian and Hispanic men (Demarest & Allen, 2000; Miller et al., 2000). Consequences of body dissatisfaction in men Olivardia et al. (2004) found that 27% of college males admitted that they used some type of steroid or performance enhancing substance. This may be an underestimate because some males may not know that substances such as creatine and ephedrine are performance enhancing substances (Olivardia et al., 2004). Blouin and Goldfield (1995a) sampled men from fitness centers and found that body builders were more likely to use steroids than other athletes. Improving looks was the most common motive to use them. Authors have found that as muscle dissatisfaction increased in college men, the level of depression increased and self-esteem decreased (Cafri et al., 2002; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Olivardia et al., 2004). In contrast, body builders had lower self-esteem, were less satisfied with their bodies than other athletes, scored higher on scales of perfectionism, and had greater feelings of ineffectiveness (Blouin & Goldfield, 1995). Similar psychological components are seen in women with eating disorders. Body builders are at greater risk for engaging in harmful behaviors (food restriction, binging and purging) to meet the ideal standard of beauty (Blouin & Goldfield, 1995). Further inquiry is needed to better understand the factors that lead men to engage in these harmful behaviors. Perfectionism in the promotion of body image concerns In addition to the mass media, high levels of perfectionism can influence persons to base their self-worth on the ideal standard of beauty that is valued in society (Cash, 2002). Originally, perfectionism was considered a unidimensional cognitive construct (Hewitt et al., 1995). In recent years, perfectionism has been described as a multidimensional construct. Multidimensional scales appear to be the method of choice because they have been found to distinguish between the personal and social dimensions of perfectionism (Franco-Paredes et al., 2005). Hewitt and Flett s (1991) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) describes these dimensions as: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Self-oriented perfectionism refers to having extremely high personal standards, constantly appraising ones actions, trying to be perfect in what one does, and trying to prevent failure. Self-oriented perfectionism has been implicated in anxiety, anorexia nervosa, low self-regard, and depression (Hewitt et al., 1995). Other-oriented perfectionism refers to having high standards for others, appraising their actions, and expecting them to be perfect. Other-oriented perfectionism has been associated with low self-esteem, but not eating disordered behavior. Socially prescribed perfectionism refers to the feeling that significant others have high standards for the individual, appraises the actions of the individual, and expects him or her to be perfect. Socially prescribed perfectionism has been related to depression, low self-esteem, body image disturbances and eating disorders (Hewitt et al., 1995). A self-presentation component of perfectionism has also been recognized in the literature (Hewitt et al., 2003). Individuals possessing this interpersonal component of perfectionism feel that they need to appear perfect to others, as a form of impression management. Some individuals who experience socially prescribed perfectionism respond to this pressure by trying to give an impression of perfection, whereas others may rebel and reject the idea of perfection. Much of the research comparing perfectionism and body image disturbances has been conducted on females (Davis, 1997; Hewitt et al., 1995). A relationship was found between self-oriented perfectionism and anorexia nervosa in female college students (Hewitt et al., 1995). Socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation were related to self-esteem, body image disturbance and eating disorder behaviors. Women who were not satisfied with their body, and have higher levels of perfectionistic self-presentation exhibited more eating disordered behaviors (McGee, Hewitt, Sherry, Parking, & Flett, 2005). In a study comparing males and females with chronic symptoms of bulimia nervosa, males scored higher on the perfectionism and interpersonal distrust subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory than females (Joiner, Katz, & Heatherton, 2000). More studies are needed to verify the relationship between perfectionism and desire for muscularity in men. There is a lack of research on the risk factors of body image dissatisfaction in men, but they seem to be similar to those found in eating disorders (Grieve, 2007; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2004). Eating disorders and drive for muscularity may both be used to attain the ideal male body as defined by society. This may be due to the dual pressure for men to be lean and muscular. Davis, Karvinen, and McCreary (2005) found that anxiousness, self-oriented perfectionism, and the focus on appearance were directly related to a drive for muscularity in men. Socially prescribed perfectionism has been significantly correlated to appearance self-esteem, weight concern, and shape concern in men, but did not account for unique variance when combined with several other factors such as body mass index, media influence, and weight-related teasing (Bardone-Cone, Cass, & Ford, 2008). The authors suggested that using an instrument designed to measure muscularity and body fat such as the Male Body Attitudes Scale should be considered for future work. Because there appears to be a noteworthy gap in the literature in regards to perfectionism and male body image in men, this topic demands further inquiry. Societal factors in the promotion of body image concerns Societal messages have been cited as sources of male body image disturbances (Cash, 2002; Pope et al., 2000; Ricciardelli & McCabe,

3 D.L. Grammas, J.P. Schwartz / Body Image 6 (2009) ; Thompson & Cafri, 2007). According to sociocultural theory, the culture determines the ideal standards of beauty and, in turn, how individuals view themselves as well as others (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Messages sent by the mass media have an influence on society s standards of beauty (Tiggemann, 2002). In Western America, thinness is the ideal standard of beauty in women and muscularity is the ideal standard for men (Tiggemann, 2002). Most women, however, cannot achieve the desired level of thinness shown by the media, which is one reason for negative body image and eating disorders in women. In contrast, the ideal muscular man has a mesomorphic body shape, defined by wide shoulders, a larger upper body and a flat abdomen (Leit et al., 1999). Again, this standard of muscularity is not attainable for most males and has been implicated in the use of anabolic steroids (Pope et al., 2000). Comparing oneself to the images in the mass media, internalizing the ideal standards of beauty as a way to judge oneself, and believing that this ideal is critical to ones self-worth are some processes that may have an affect on a woman s body image (Tiggemann, 2002). There is initial evidence that some of these processes also occur in adolescent boys and men (Morry & Staska, 2001; Stanford & McCabe, 2005). Morry and Staska (2001) found that men who read fitness magazines and women who read beauty magazines were more likely to internalize the ideal standards of beauty set by society, which was been related to an increase in eating disorders and body shape dissatisfaction. When looking at a number a of biopsychosocial factors in relation to body dissatisfaction in college aged men, media pressures accounted for a significant amount of the variance (Bardone-Cone et al., 2008). Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn (2004) found that seeing images of the ideal body in television advertisements can increase the amount of muscle dissatisfaction and depression in males. The proposed study There is a plethora of research on female body image, but less research on male body image. The studies mentioned previously indicate that there is increasing body dissatisfaction in males, which can lead to use of steroids, eating disorders and other unhealthy behaviors. Male body image needs to be researched in greater depth to understand the full scope of the factors associated with decreased satisfaction. In addition, many of the scales used to measure body image were designed for females (who have different body image concerns than men), thus underscoring the importance of scales designed for men. In the past few years scales have been designed specifically for males, such as the Male Body Attitude Scale (MBAS: Tylka, Bergeron, & Schwartz, 2005). The MBAS consists of three subscales (muscularity, body fat, and height) which have been found to be an effective measure of male body image concerns. There does not appear to be any studies comparing ethnicity internalization of messages in society, perfectionism and male body image at the same time. The purpose of this study is to determine if there is a relationship among these four variables, specifically do ethnicity, internalization of messages from society, and perfectionism serve as predictors of negative male body image? Method Participants Two hundred two undergraduate men from a large Southern university were recruited from chemistry, psychology, marketing and human development classes. Students received extra credit for their participation. The mean age was years (SD = 3.88), and 37.3% were Asian, 27.7% were Caucasian, 14.5% were Hispanic, and 13.6% were African American. The mean body mass index (BMI) was (SD = 4.69). However only 136 of the 202 participants filled out information on both height and weight. The mean weight was pounds (SD = 41.99) and height was in. (SD = 12.51). Informed consent and measures were completed online using Survey Monkey, at the participant s convenience. About 45 min were needed to complete the surveys. Measures The Male Body Attitude Scale (MBAS: Tylka et al., 2005) The MBAS is a 29-item scale designed to measure body dissatisfaction in males. Participants respond on a scale ranging from 1 (always) to 6 (never). Lower total and subscale scores indicate a greater degree of dissatisfaction. Concurrent, convergent and discriminant validity have been established (Tylka et al., 2005). Cronbach alphas of.92 were reported for the total score,.90 for the muscularity subscale,.94 for low body fat and.85 for height (Tylka et al., 2005). The Cronbach s alphas for the present study were.89 for the muscularity subscale,.90 for low body fat, and.66 for height. Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ; Heinberg, Thompson, & Stormer, 1995) The internalization subscale of the SATAQ was administered to assess acceptance of society s standard of appearance due to media exposure. Respondents rate their responses on a scale of 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). Scales were modified for use with men ( men replaced women, muscular/fit replaced thin, bodybuilder replaced swimsuit model and Men s Fitness and Muscle & Fitness replaced Cosmopolitan, Vogue, and Glamour ) as in Morry and Staska (2001). Higher scores indicate greater internalization of standards of appearance that exist in the media. Heinberg et al. (1995) reported Cronbach alphas of.88 for internalization. Convergent and discriminant validity has been demonstrated in women (Heinberg et al., 1995). The Cronbach s alpha for the internalization subscale for the present study was.79. Mulitdimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) This is a 45-item scale designed to measure the personal and social components of perfectionism. Participants respond on a scale of 1 (strongly agree to 7 (strongly disagree). Lower scores reflect greater perfectionism. Three subscales exist: self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed; each comprised of 15 items. Cronbach s alphas were.89 for self-oriented perfectionism,.79 for other-oriented perfectionism, and.86 for socially prescribed perfectionism. It has also been shown to have good construct, convergent, and discriminant validity (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). The Cronbach s alphas for the present study were.87 for the selforiented perfectionism scale,.72 for socially prescribed and.66 for other-oriented perfectionism. Data analyses Analyses were conducted utilizing the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version Three separate multiple linear regression analyses were conducted using the subscales of the MBAS (muscularity, body fat, and height) as the criterion variables. Ethnicity, the three perfectionism subscales (selforiented, socially prescribed and other-oriented) and internalization subscales were the predictor variables. Ethnicity was dummy coded as follows: 1 = Caucasian; 2 = African American; 3 = Asian; 4 = Hispanic (Meyers, Gamst, & Guarinno, 2006). Caucasian was used as the reference group. For a medium effect size, and power of

4 34 D.L. Grammas, J.P. Schwartz / Body Image 6 (2009) Table 1 Means and standard deviations by ethnicity on muscularity, low body fat and height subscales of the MBAS. Variable.95, a sample size of 153 (actual sample size = 202) was needed for this study (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007). Results Caucasian (n = 60) Preliminary analyses African American (n = 29) Asian (n = 74) Hispanic (n = 28) M SD M SD M SD M SD Muscularity Low body fat Height Note. Lower scores equal greater dissatisfaction. Whereas data from seven different ethnic groups were collected, only four categories were created (Caucasian, African American, Asian American and Hispanic) due to the small number of participants in the other groups. A MANOVA was conducted to determine if there were differences between the four ethnic groups (Caucasian N = 60; African American N = 29; Asian N = 74; Hispanic N = 28) on scores of muscularity, low body fat, or height (see Table 1). The MANOVA indicated that the multivariate effect was not significant, Wilk s L =.974. F(185.00, ) =.543, p =.84, h 2 =.009. This indicates that there were no significant differences among ethnic groups for the three dependent variables. There were no violations of assumptions of normality or homogeneity of variance. Even though the MANOVA showed no significant differences among ethnicities, we were interested in determining if ethnicity would explain variance when combined with the other variables, thus it was added to the regression equation (Meyers et al., 2006). Bivariate correlations were conducted to determine the relation among the predictor variables and the muscularity, low body fat and height subscales of the MBAS. Self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism and internalization were positively correlated with the muscularity subscale of the MBAS (see Table 2). A significant positive correlation was found between the socially prescribed perfectionism scale and the low body fat subscale. Finally, socially prescribed perfectionism and internalization were significantly correlated with the height subscale. Correlations that were significant were in the predicted direction, such as greater socially prescribed perfectionism associated with higher levels of low body Table 2 Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the measures. Measure M SD MBAS Muscularity MBAS Low body fat ** 3. MBAS Height **.16 * 4. SOP * SPP **.32 ***.16 *.37 *** 6. OOP ***.26 *** 7. Internalization *** *** * *.20 ** Note. BMI: body mass index; SOP: self-oriented perfectionism; OOP: other-oriented perfectionism; SPP: socially prescribed perfectionism. Lower muscularity, low body fat and height scores equal greater dissatisfaction. Lower self-oriented, otheroriented and socially prescribed scores equal greater perfectionism. Higher internalization scores equal greater internalization. * p <.05. ** p <.01. *** p <.001. Table 3 Multiple linear regression analysis summary for the prediction of muscularity scores (N = 202). Predictor variable b SE b R 2 African American Asian * Hispanic Internalization *** SOP SPP ** OOP * p <.05. ** p <.01. *** p <.001. fat dissatisfaction, and greater internalizationassociatedwithgreater dissatisfaction with muscularity. Prediction of muscularity attitudes Assumptions of normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity were met. No multicollinearity among predictors was found. Ethnicity, the three types of perfectionism, and internalization accounted for 19.6% of the variance, F(7, 195) = 6.80, p <.001. Being Asian (b =.17, p <.05), socially prescribed perfectionism (b =.21, p <.01) and internalization (b =.19, p <.001) were significant positive predictors of muscularity dissatisfaction (Table 3). Prediction of low body fat attitudes Ethnicity, the three types of perfectionism, and internalization accounted for 10.4% of the variance of the low body fat subscale, F(7, 195) = 3.22, p <.01. Internalization (b =.19, p <.01) and socially prescribed perfectionism (b =.25, p <.01) were significant positive predictors of low body fat dissatisfaction (Table 4). Prediction of height attitudes Ethnicity, the three types of perfectionism and internalization accounted for 6.5% of the variance of the height dissatisfaction subscale, F(7, 195) = 1.94, p >.05). There were no significant predictors. Discussion The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between ethnicity, the multidimensional scales of perfectionism, internalization of messages from society, and aspects of male body image. Specifically, the goal was to assess if ethnicity, internalization of messages from society and perfectionism serve as predictors of negative male body image. The results indicate that the hypotheses were partially supported. Table 4 Multiple linear regression analysis summary for the prediction of MBAS low body fat scores (N = 202). Predictor Variable b SE b R 2 African American Asian Hispanic Internalization ** SOP SPP ** OOP * p <.05. ** p <.01. *** p <.001.

5 D.L. Grammas, J.P. Schwartz / Body Image 6 (2009) Prediction of muscularity dissatisfaction Self-oriented perfectionism was not a significant predictor of muscle dissatisfaction. This is surprising as Davis et al. (2005) found that self-oriented perfectionism was directly related to a drive for muscularity in men. This characteristic was also found in a drive for thinness and anorexia in females (Davis et al., 2005; Hewitt et al., 1995). Socially prescribed perfectionism was a significant predictor of muscularity. In contrast, Bardone-Cone et al. (2008) indicated that socially prescribed perfectionism was not a significant predictor of concerns with weight or shape. However it did serve as a moderator in the relationship between body mass index and body dissatisfaction. An Asian ethnicity was a significant negative predictor indicating that Asian males were less satisfied with their amount of muscularity than Caucasian males. This is consistent with previous research that has shown that Asian males have greater body dissatisfaction than Caucasian males (Barnett et al., 2001). In addition, Barnett et al., found that Asian men were significantly smaller than Caucasian men, thus they deviated more from the ideal body than their Caucasian counterparts. However, previous research has indicated that African Americans had a higher degree of body satisfaction than Caucasians (Miller et al., 2000; Smith et al., 1997) which did not hold true for this sample. Internalization was a significant predictor of muscle dissatisfaction. Vartanian et al. (2001) found that the more men internalized messages from society, the more dissatisfied they were with shape. Studies based on media representations indicate that the ideal male body has increased in muscularity to a level unattainable by most men (Leit et al., 1999; Pope et al., 1999). As this standard of beauty is internalized, the level of satisfaction in one s own muscle mass decreases. Because the three types of perfectionism have not been considered in previous research along with internalization of societal messages, these finding may address the impact of the media on men. Prediction of low body fat dissatisfaction Socially prescribed perfectionism was a significant predictor of low body fat, whereas the other two subscales did not have significant effects. Higher levels of socially prescribed perfectionism are related to higher levels of dissatisfaction with the amount of one s body fat. It is surprising that self-oriented perfectionism was not a significant predictor as previous research has indicated that the average male desires a body with greater muscularity and less fat (Cafri et al., 2002; Olivardia et al., 2004). Men do not seem more likely to feel pressure to personally endorse the view of society to meet the standards of body fat. In contrast, it appears as if men feel that significant others expect them to have low body fat. The socially prescribed perfectionism subscale does not measure the significant others actual expectations of the male, only his perceived expectations from others. This would be consistent with the findings that men perceived the ideal male body to be more muscular and less fat than they actually were (Olivardia et al., 2004). In addition, this is the same body type they assumed that most women would prefer, when in reality women preferred a man with less muscle and more fat. This underscores the importance of considering the multidimensional aspects of this trait when measuring male body dissatisfaction. Internalization was also a significant positive predictor of low body fat. This is consistent with research conducted by Morry and Staska (2001) and Vartanian et al. (2001) who found that as the internalization of messages from society increase, so did body dissatisfaction. However these studies only considered overall body dissatisfaction. Thus it was unclear whether dissatisfaction that was specifically related to muscularity or to low body fat. Prediction of height dissatisfaction Ethnicity, perfectionism and internalization did not serve as predictors of height dissatisfaction. Because no research was found that examined how perfectionism or internalization relates specifically to height, it is difficult to draw conclusions. Since height is not as malleable as one s level of muscularity or body fat, perhaps men feel that they cannot control their height, but they can change their level of muscularity or body fat. The internal reliability of the height subscale was somewhat low suggesting these results should be interpreted with caution. Together these findings suggest that there is societal and social pressure on men to meet body standards related to muscularity and body fat and these pressures affect men s attitude towards their bodies. Internalization of societal messages contributed variance to muscle dissatisfaction andbody fat, indicating thatmen may endorse the images in the media relating to muscularity as well as body fat, but not height. Self-oriented perfectionism was not associated with body dissatisfaction indicating that those with high personal standards were not more likely to have negative attitudes toward their level of muscularity, body fat or height. Socially prescribed perfectionism was related to dissatisfaction with muscularity and body fat, suggesting that men who perceive significant others as having high expectations for the individual experience greater dissatisfaction in regards to these variables, but not with height. It appears that there are similar societal and social pressures on men to meet body standards relatedto muscularity and body fat. In addition, being Asian was associated with dissatisfaction with muscularity, but not body fat. Thus, the process of internalizing societal messages relatedtomuscularityintothe viewofself seems particularitysalient for those of Asian ethnicity. Ethnicity, perfectionism and internalization were not related to height dissatisfaction. Limitations and future research Although this study advanced the research on predictors of male body image in several ways, there are limitations of the current study. To begin with, the measures utilized consisted of self-report questionnaires. It is possible that responses given may not reflect the true feelings of the individual, but are representative of social desirability. Second, the population consisted of college age men, thus the results may not be generalizable to other populations. However, the population that participated represented a much greater ethnic diversity of men than found in previous research that consists mainly of Caucasians. Third, no significant findings were observed with the other-oriented perfectionism scale or height subscale, which may be due to the low internal reliability found in the present study. It may be that other constructs may be measured in addition to other-oriented perfectionism or height. It is also possible that the low internal reliabilities are sample specific, or that these constructs are not normed with a diverse population. Finally, the research is correlational in nature. Thus, causation cannot be determined. For instance, we do not know if internalization of societal messages leads to muscle dissatisfaction or if muscle dissatisfaction leads one to internalize the ideal standards for muscularity. Finally, BMI of participants may not be accurate as only 76% of the men filled out information on both height and weight. There are also measurement concerns. For instance, the SATAQ was originally designed for women and modified for use with men. While there is research indicating that it has been found to be reliable for use with men, there is a lack of validity information on

6 36 D.L. Grammas, J.P. Schwartz / Body Image 6 (2009) the use of this scale for men. The most recent version of this instrument was not used in this study. Using a more current version may have yielded different results. A revised version of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Quesionaire-3 for men, which focuses on muscularity, has shown to be reliable and valid (Karazsia & Crowther, 2007). The instruments designed to measure body dissatisfaction in men have only been developed in the past few years, thus long term psychometric reliability and validity have not been established. It can be difficult to determine if the scales are measuring the same constructs. For example, how do the constructs of muscle dissatisfaction and low body fat of the MBAS compare with the same constructs of the Somatomorphic Matrix? Because research on male body image has not been explored to the same depth as female body image there are numerous areas for future research. The MBAS includes a subscale for height which is not measured in other scales of male body satisfaction. Thus variables such as personality traits and societal influences can be used as predictors of height dissatisfaction. Research has not yet examined how other personality traits such as anxiousness or narcissism may relate to male body image dissatisfaction. In addition, future studies are needed to evaluate the reliability and validity of the scales that specifically measure male body image. Further research is needed to examine the differences in male body image based on ethnicity and sexual orientation as well as various subcultures such as body builders and other athletes. Finally, other methods of research such as longitudinal studies and qualitative research are needed to determine how male body image changes over time and to gain greater insight as to why males experience body dissatisfaction. Having a greater understanding of the variables that influence male body image also has clinical implications. The number of men dissatisfied with their body has increased to such an extent that terms such as muscle dysmorphia have become common in empirical research. Thus it is important for therapists to gain awareness of the factors that can influence male body image in order to provide appropriate interventions for their clients who are experiencing psychological distress due to poor body image. Therapy targeting the source of body image distress such as societal idealization or perfectionism may be beneficial. References Agliata, D., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2004). The impact of media exposure on males body image. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), Bardone-Cone, A. M., Cass, K. M., & Ford, J. A. (2008). Examining body dissatisfaction in young men within a biopsychosocial framework. Body Image, 5, Barnett, H. L., Keel, K. K., & Conoscenti, (2001). 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