Developing Performance Standards for Teacher Assessment by Policy Capturing

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1 Assessment & Evlution in Higher Eduction, Vol. 28, No. 4, 2003 Developing Performnce Stndrds for Techer Assessment by Policy Cpturing MARIEKE F. VAN DER SCHAAF, KAREL M. STOKKING, Deprtment of Eductionl Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlnds NICO VERLOOP, ICLON Grdute School of Eduction, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlnds ABSTRACT There is need for ssessment of techers competencies fostered by growing ttention given to ccountbility nd qulity improvement. Importnt questions re how good the demonstrted competencies of techers should be for stisfying ssessment nd how the different competencies should be weighted. Using policy cpturing method, in two rounds, nine stkeholders developed performnce stndrds (or cut-off scores) for techer ssessment on eight criteri (or content stndrds) tht resulted from n erlier study. Between the rounds, the pnellists held structured group discussion. Policy cpturing proved to be cler nd useful method generting consistent judgements tht cn be described ccording to both compenstory model nd conjunctive model. From the first to the second round, the consistency incresed. However, while the pnellists greed to substntil degree on the performnce stndrds, they disgreed on the weights to be ssigned to the criteri. Introduction There is demnd for ccountbility nd qulity improvement in the teching profession. Techers re expected to disply the competencies (knowledge, skills nd ttitudes) needed to perform their tsks nd to engge in continuous professionl development. Assessment is used s tool to scertin whether techers stisfy the required competencies nd to formulte guidelines for professionl development. In the first cse, ssessment is used summtively in order to ccount for the techer s qulity, with possible consequences such s certifiction nd merit py. In the second cse, ssessment hs formtive gol nd produces informtion tht cn be used for plnning ctivities directed t further professionl development. ISSN print; ISSN X online/03/ Tylor & Frncis Ltd DOI: /

2 396 M. F. vn der Schf et l. It is common to describe competencies in terms of criteri (or content stndrds) nd performnce stndrds. The criteri describe the dimensions on which techers should be ssessed nd performnce stndrds re the cut-off scores tht indicte the minimum levels for sufficient result. In this rticle, we focus on the development of performnce stndrds for the purpose of summtive ssessment of experienced techers. Over the lst decde, techer competencies hve been incresingly ssessed by performnce ssessment, ccompnied by chnge in instruments from behviourl observtions nd knowledge tests to simultions nd portfolios. The ltter instruments recognise tht teching is complex ctivity nd tht techer behviour is inextricbly bound up with the techer s cognition nd with the sitution in which the teching tkes plce. In performnce ssessment, the judgement is preferbly not dichotomous (in terms of right or wrong) but uses multiple cut-off scores (e.g. bsic, competent, dvnced). Additionlly, it is usul to judge on severl criteri, which re possibly differentilly weighted. In the lst 10 yers, different methods hve been developed for generting performnce stndrds to be used in performnce ssessment (Berk, 1996). Mny methods re criterion referenced, in which the cndidte s score is directly compred with performnce stndrd. The performnce is judged stisfctory if it surpsses this stndrd. Most of these criterion-referenced methods re bsed on stkeholders judgements, in which stkeholders re sked to ssess the minimum score necessry to stisfy the criteri. Some methods using stkeholders re bsed on policy cpturing (see for exmple Jeger, 1995; Putnm et l., 1995). Policy cpturing hs been used in vrious fields to generte insight into the judges cognitive processes (Cooksey, 1996). This method is prticulrly interesting s it is not only directed towrds the question of how well techers should score but lso towrds the weighting of the criteri nd the specific judgementl model. To nswer these questions, policy cpturing uses multiple regression procedures to produce best fitting eqution or policy. Stkeholders judge gret number of techer profiles, being configurtions of scores on criteri. The judgements re nlysed by multiple regression nlysis, yielding policy tht indictes the performnce stndrds nd the criteri weights. This procedure cn be used both for the whole pnel of stkeholders (pnel policy) nd the individul pnel members (personl policies). The merits nd shortcomings of using policy cpturing for developing performnce stndrds re still lrgely unknown nd the implementtion meets some obstcles (Hmbleton, 1997), of which we mention two. First, the method is difficult one for the prticipting stkeholders, even fter trining. This is problemticl becuse the vlidity of the performnce stndrds depends to high degree on the stkeholders competence to implement the method. Second, the method ims to rech consensus between the pnellists. It is likely tht pnellists judgements re bsed on different ssumptions nd perspectives, which probbly result in different preferences for performnce stndrds. To rech consensus ll pnellists should gree with the performnce stndrds tht best meet the different underlying ssumptions nd perspectives. Wheres the resulting performnce stndrds will be bsed on mix of different underlying visions, the precise mening of the stndrds will become less cler. In this study, we develop nd test policy cpturing method tht ims to overcome these problems. The study is prt of lrger reserch project on the summtive judgement of experienced socil sciences techers competencies (economics, geogrphy, history) in pre-university eduction in The Netherlnds (ges 16 18), comprble with undergrdute college level eduction in, for exmple, the Americn system. The

3 Developing Performnce Stndrds 397 techers re expected to promote the development of their students reserch skills by hving them work independently nd in groups on ssignments tht result in report or presenttion. Developing Performnce Stndrds Criteri Competence is generic term for the knowledge, skills nd ttitudes required for dequte functioning in profession. Competence cn be divided into the (sub)competencies needed to stisfctorily perform set of tsks. Competencies cn be mde visible in ctions nd be influenced by the context (Gonczi, 1993) nd re seen s combintions of behviour nd the underlying intentions nd motives. Following this definition in n erlier Delphi study, we developed criteri tht becme the input for this study (vn der Schf et l., 2003). The criteri hve been formulted both in terms of tsks nd knowledge domins. The combintion of both dimensions genertes mtrix. One xis describes the tsks tht techers hve to fulfil when teching. The other xis describes the knowledge domins tht techers rely on when they fulfil their tsks. The cells refer to the criteri tht techers hve to meet when teching reserch skills to students (see Figure 1). The criteri re s follows. (1) Selecting yer long gols for students (GOAL): techer s long-term gols for developing students reserch skills nd his or her pproch to rech these gols. (2) Choosing n pproprite ssignment (ASSIGN): the gols, content nd form of the ssignment. (3) Prepring nd mnging students working on their ssignments (MANAG): the preprtion, communiction nd mngement of fcilities (time, rooms, sources, medi, etc.) tht students need for fulfilling the ssignment. (4) Previously thinking of nd selecting teching strtegies tht support the development of reserch skills of students (THINK): the choice of nd rgumenttion for the use of teching strtegies tht meet students knowledge, bilities nd experience. (5) Teching students reserch skills (TEACH): the use of the teching strtegies chosen s described in criterion 4. (6) Creting positive pedgogicl climte (CLIM): the provision of sfe, respectful nd stimulting lerning environment to students. (7) Adequtely ssessing reserch skills of students (ASSESS): techers rgumenttion for nd the clrity nd comprehensibility of the ssessment pproch used (criteri, scoring nd norms), the pplicbility of the pproch to the ssignment nd the wy the techer hndles the ssessment nd communictes the results to the students. (8) Reflecting on the progrmme nd on ctions in teching students reserch skills (REFL): the extent to which the techer is wre of strong nd wek points in his or her teching nd his or her suggestions for improvement. Judgementl Model High stke ssessment, such s for certifiction, selection or merit py, must result in single outcome. For tht purpose, the scores on the criteri hve to be combined into finl judgement. Two models tht re frequently used for combining scores on criteri re the compenstory model nd the conjunctive model. In the compenstory model, the cndidte should chieve defined totl score to pss the ssessment, llowing high scores on certin criteri to compenste for low scores on other criteri (Mehrens, 1990).

4 398 M. F. vn der Schf et l. FIG. 1.Criteri in function of tsks nd knowledge domins. The conjunctive model requires tht the cndidte ttins certin minimum score on ech criterion. Choosing between these models one should consider the following: (i) the perception of teching s profession. Is teching profession in which it is nturl to hve both strong nd wek sides or should techer pss minimum requirements for ech relevnt criterion to gurntee competent prctice?; (ii) the supposed linkges between the criteri. If the criteri re strongly relted, it is resonble to let them compenste for one nother; if not, conjunctive model is sensible choice; (iii) the voidnce of incorrect judgements. With compenstory model, positive nd negtive devitions cncel ech other. With conjunctive model, only one good or bd score, s result of good luck or bd luck, could produce n incorrect overll judgement. We prefer the compenstory model. It is relistic to ssume tht techers hve wek sides nd tht they still hve scope to develop further. In ddition, we focus on high stke performnce ssessment, ttempting to void incorrect judgements s much s possible.

5 Developing Performnce Stndrds 399 Professionl Development Generlly, performnce stndrds re bsed on n explicit model of the processes behind the competencies or the wy these competencies develop. Often, development is plced on continuum from less to more professionl. Aiming t teching performnce stndrds, this pproch is not wholly dequte, becuse development cn be n irregulr process with sudden improvements or unexpected environmentl influences (Hubermn, 1995; Dy, 1999). In ddition, the course of development cn differ between individuls nd between contexts (Erut, 1994). Performnce stndrds cn lso be bsed on minimlly required or mximlly fesible mstery levels (Wheeler & Hertel, 1993), s we do in our study. Qulity Requirements for Performnce Stndrds Kne (1994) describes three types of evidence for demonstrting the ppropriteness of performnce stndrds which re developed judgementlly, bsed on stkeholders ssessments: (i) vlidity checks bsed on externl criteri consisting of comprisons of the performnce stndrds with externl informtion bout the desired techer competencies. As our study is directed towrds rther new element in the curriculum nd externl informtion is not yet vilble, we restrict ourselves to the other two types of evidence; (ii) vlidity checks bsed on internl criteri, concerning the consistency of the judgements in the stndrd setting procedure. The consistency indictes the relibility of the procedure used. We delibertely use the word indictes, becuse vrition in pnellists judgements does not necessrily men tht the procedure s such is not relible, since the pnellists could interpret the performnce stndrds differently; nd (iii) procedurl evidence, consisting of demonstrting the soundness of the chosen performnce stndrd setting procedure nd its use, including the selection of the pnellists involved in the process. Method Smple of Stkeholders A pnel of nine stkeholders ws selected. This number is ssumed to be sufficient for setting reproducible stndrds (Berk, 1996). Seven stkeholders lso prticipted in n erlier study in which criteri for teching students reserch skills were developed (vn der Schf et l., 2003). Hence, these pnellists were fmilir with the criteri. The dditionl two pnellists were thoroughly briefed. The pnel consisted of three school principls (one of them formerly history techer nd techer triner), two experienced geogrphy techers who were lso techer triners, two experienced history techers, one experienced techer in both geogrphy nd history nd n experienced techer in socil science subjects who is lso techer triner in economics. The techer triners were working t techer trining institutes t or llied with severl universities. All pnellists were fmilir with the objectives nd pproches of teching reserch skills to students ged They supported the bsic ssumptions nd gols of our study nd received finncil compenstion. None of the pnellists hd ever prticipted in policy cpturing study before. Tsk The pnellists tsk involved judging fictitious techer profiles. Ech profile consisted of

6 400 M. F. vn der Schf et l. FIG. 2.Exmple of profile. A, the techer stisfies the criterion completely or to strong degree; B, the techer stisfies the criterion to resonble or to some degree; C, the techer stisfies the criterion to smll degree or not t ll. configurtion of fictitious scores of one techer on the eight criteri shown in Figure 1. Tht number of criteri is close to the mximum number tht judges cn hndle in policy cpturing procedure (Cooksey, 1996). Ech criterion met one out of three nchor points, nmely the techer stisfies the criterion: A, completely or to strong degree; B, to resonble or to some degree; C, to smll degree or not t ll. The profiles vried in their scores on the criteri. See Figure 2 for n exmple. In our study, we focused on portfolio ssessment, portfolio being tken s collection of mteril bout the techer s work, in this cse concerning reserch ssignment the techer hs given to the students. The mteril ws mde up of self-description, the ssignment, interviews, videos of teching reserch skills to students, evlutions by students nd judgements of students work by the techer. Before strting their tsk, the pnellists studied n exmple portfolio. They lso studied mnul in which ll eight criteri, ll nchor points for these eight criteri nd the portfolio mteril hd been crefully nd comprehensively described. In first round, the pnellists judged 64 profiles. They judged 40 profiles in second round. In the second round, 13 profiles from the first round were repeted to investigte whether the pnellists judgements were consistent (fitting the recommended number for replicted profiles) (Cooksey, 1996). The pnellists were not informed of this. In order to minimise the effects of memory, we mixed the 13 replicted profiles with the 27 new profiles rndomly. Smple of Profiles Idelly, the smple of profiles represents the trget domin nd is drwn from empiricl cses. However, in our study this ws not fesible becuse techers were still inexperienced in teching students reserch skills. Therefore, we used smple of fictitious

7 Developing Performnce Stndrds 401 profiles. With 8 criteri nd 3 nchor points 3 8 or 6561 profiles cn be constructed. From these, using SPSS, we drew rndom smples of 64 nd 40 profiles to be used in the first nd second rounds, respectively (men scores 2.02 nd 1.96; stndrd devitions 0.29 nd 0.30; minim 1.38 nd 1.25; mxim 2.63 nd 2.50). The rtios between the number of profiles nd the number of criteri were 8 1 nd 5 1, respectively, nd mtch with the recommended minim (Cooksey, 1996). Procedure As policy cpturing is difficult tsk nd it is uncler how pnellists hving different perspectives could rech consensus, we used severl mens to support the process. Firstly, the pnellists were given feedbck on their judgements to increse their understnding of the judgementl process (Vn de Pligt, 1997). Secondly, the pnellists were given opportunities to reconsider their performnce stndrds (Cross et l., 1984). Thirdly, the pnellists discussed their judgements (Fitzptrick, 1989). Fourthly, procedures were included to prevent negtive effects of group discussion s much s possible. The procedure consisted of 6 steps. 1. Trining (4 hours plenry). The pnellists studied mnul describing the objectives, plnning nd procedures of policy cpturing. They then followed trining focused on the pnel s im, tsk nd procedure, including discussion bout the criteri, the nchor points, nd the portfolio. The trining gol ws to let them prctice judging the profiles, without stndrdising their wy of judging. The judged profiles were discussed, including the extent to which the pnellists greed nd the resons for their judgements. 2. Judgements, first round (3 hours individully). The pnellists received booklet contining 64 profiles. It ws explined tht the profiles were fictitious. The pnellists were sked to judge the profiles on the 3 nchor points. The pnellists judged the profiles individully t home. 3. Studying feedbck (1 hour individully). The pnellists received written feedbck, consisting of grph illustrting the pnel policy nd the personl policies resulting from the multiple regression nlysis. 4. Discussion (4 hours plenry). The feedbck (step 3) ws the input for meeting in which the pnellists discussed the underlying rguments for the different policies nd tried to rech consensus. In group discussion, prticipnts cn be influenced by socil comprison nd by informtion from others. During the meeting, we tried to minimise the effects of socil comprison (which would bring bout unwnted effects, such s groupthink, polristion nd domintion by few pnel members) nd to promote the effects of informtion (which would increse the qulity of the discussion). We used the nominl group technique (Delbecq et l., 1975), consisting of structured discussion in which the pnellists lternte between working individully nd in plenry sessions. During the plenry sessions they clrify their rguments nd try to convince the other prticipnts of their judgements. Public commitment to their personl policies could mke pnellists resistnt to chnging their opinion (Fitzptrick, 1989). To control for this effect, we divided the pnel during step 4 (Discussion) into two subgroups: five pnellists who prticipted in the group discussion (pnellists 1, 2 nd 6 8) nd four pnellists who hd n individul

8 402 M. F. vn der Schf et l. discussion with resercher (the first uthor) (pnellists 3 5 nd 9). The group discussion nd the discussions with the resercher, which were both video-recorded nd fully trnscribed, followed the phsing of the nominl group technique: (i) fter recognising their personl policies, the pnellists considered how to substntite them; (ii) ech pnellist presented nd clrified his or her personl policy (to the other prticipnts or to the resercher); (iii) the pnellists concluded their presenttion in few sttements summrising the min points. This resulted in list of 26 sttements; (iv) the pnellists tht prticipted in the group discussion exmined whether they could rech greement on pnel policy. In ddition, ll pnellists judged the 26 sttements (the result of step c) on 5-point scle (from gretly gree to gretly disgree). 5. Judgements, second round (2 hours individully). As pnellists rech better results if they hve the opportunity to chnge their erlier policies (Jeger, 1990), they were sked gin to judge 40 fictitious profiles. They received the sme instructions nd were sked the sme questions s in the first round. 6. Feedbck. After the second round of judgements the pnellists received feedbck on their personl policy nd the pnel policy. Dt Anlysis The pnellists judged fictitious profiles of techers, ech profile consisting of scores on eight criteri. In the multiple regression model the profiles scores on the criteri re the predictor vribles nd the pnellists judgements of the profiles re the criterion vribles. For multiple regression nlysis to be vlid, ssumptions of normlity of the residuls, homoscedsticity, linerity nd no collinetion hve to be fulfilled. We checked these by: mking histogrm of the stndrdised residuls from the judgements of the profiles, mking plot of the stndrdised residuls ginst the predicted judgements nd clculting the tolernce of the criteri nd the correltions between the criteri. Our next questions were: (i) whether techers competencies cn be best judged ccording to compenstory or conjunctive model; (ii) wht weights the criteri should hve in the judgement; (iii) wht the minimum overll profile score should be for techers to be judged s stisfctory. To nswer these questions we executed multiple liner regression nlyses ccording to compenstory model nd multiple regression nlyses pplying nturl logrithm trnsformtion ccording to conjunctive model (Jeger, 1995; Cooksey, 1996). To indicte the qulity of the models, we used the proportion explined vrince (r 2 ). The closer r 2 is to 1.0, the better the model describes the judgements. To revel possible differences between personl policies, we depicted them in digrm nd computed the stndrdised β weights of the criteri in the personl policies. In ddition, we checked the consistency of the pnellists judgements by computing the correltions between the judgements of the 13 replicted profiles between the first nd second round. Pnellists possibly judged more consistently in the second round s result of the group discussion. To control for this, we used the Mnn Whitney test test (2-tiled) to test for differences in the consistency between the pnellists who prticipted in the two subgroups. Further, we nlysed the pnellists scores on the 26 sttements summrising their min ssumptions nd perspectives. We serched for reltion between the pnellists

9 Developing Performnce Stndrds 403 perspectives nd their personl judgementl policies by computing the prtil correltions between the scores on the sttements nd the stndrdised β vlues of the personl policies. Finlly, the pnellists evluted the policy cpturing method on the following spects: the difficulty of the procedure, the recognisbility of their personl policy nd the role chieved by the feedbck. Results Assumption Checks The ssumptions of normlity, homoscedsticity nd linerity were sufficiently met. The criteri (the predictors in the model) were brely collineted: the tolernce ws high (between 0.80 nd 0.95 with one outlier of 0.75) nd the Person correltions were low (between r 0.34 nd r 0.20, mostly round r 0.00). Judgementl Model, Criteri Weights nd Performnce Stndrds Firstly, the pnel policy nd the personl policies for both rounds were nlysed. Tble 1 shows tht the conjunctive model predicts pnellists judgements slightly better thn the compenstory model. However, in our view the difference between both models is not lrge enough to relinquish the dvntges of the compenstory model. The higher r 2 in the second round indictes tht the model better represents the judgements in the second round thn in the first round. Secondly, we wnted to know wht weights the criteri should be given. Tble 2 contins the results of the nlyses, using compenstory model. The β vlues show tht the pnel gives criteri 5 (TEACH) nd 6 (CLIM) more weight thn the other criteri. Thirdly, the pnel policy ws clculted in order to determine wht the minimum totl score should be for techers to be judged s stisfctory. Every profile consisted of 8 criteri with (vrible) scores on nchor point A, B or C. The profiles were judged by the pnellists s good, stisfctory or not stisfctory. To clculte the pnel policy we ttched the scores 3, 2 nd 1 to the nchor points A, B nd C nd lso 3, 2 nd 1 to the judgements good, stisfctory nd not stisfctory. So, both the verge profile score (the verge of the fictive scores on the 8 criteri) nd the judgements cn TABLE 1. Adequcy of the pnel policy nd personl policies in terms of r 2 Round 1 Round 2 Pnellist Compenstory r 2 Conjunctive r 2 Compenstory r 2 Conjunctive r Pnel (totl)

10 404 M. F. vn der Schf et l. TABLE 2. Results of the multiple regression nlyses in rounds 1 nd 2, compenstory model Round 1 (n 575) Round 2 (n 360) b Stndrdised β t (P 0.001) b Stndrdised β t (P 0.001) 1 GOAL ASSIGN MANAG THINK TEACH CLIM ASSESS REFL Constnt 0.73 (se 0.16) (se 0.18) 7.64 Round 1 r 0.61 F (df) (566) (P 0.001) r Adjusted r Round 2 r 0.73 F (df) (351) (P 0.001) r Adjusted r P 0.69.

11 Developing Performnce Stndrds 405 FIG. 3.Judgements of men profile scores by pnellists in round 2, compenstory model (r ). The numbers ner the policy lines refer to the pnellists. The bold line refers to the pnel policy. Judgement (y-xis): 1, not stisfctory; 2, stisfctory; 3, good. Algorithm of the pnel policy: 0.16 GOAL 0.23 ASSIGN 0.06 MANAG 0.15 THINK 0.33 TEACH 0.33 CLIM 0.19 ASSESS 0.14 REFL meet scores between 1 nd 3. In Figure 3, the x-xis represents the verge profile scores nd the y-xis refers to the judgements given. The bold line indictes the pnel policy (round 2, compenstory model). The thin lines indicte the personl policies. Figure 3 shows tht some of the pnellists judge more leniently thn others. However, most of the thin lines re close together, so the pnellists s group greed to gret extent on the performnce stndrds. The results in the first round (not shown here) were very comprble. In both rounds, techers needed minimlly n verge profile score between 2.1 nd 2.2 to be judged s stisfctory (i.e. to get men pnel judgement of 2). In our study stisfctory mens tht techer s portfolio is sufficient nd meets the pnel s perception of competent techer to moderte to high degree. A stisfctory totl score cn hve severl consequences, like certifiction or merit py in the cse of summtive ssessment or insight into strong nd wek points tht need further development in the cse of formtive ssessment. Although most pnellists were close together on the cut-off point, their opinions differed s to the weights to be ttched to the criteri. Tble 3 gives survey per round of the weights the pnellists ttched to the criteri, bsed on the compenstory model. Most of the pnellists ttched comprble weights to the criteri in the second round s they did in the first round. The pnellists nswers were not relted to their

12 406 M. F. vn der Schf et l. professionl position (e.g. techer, principl, techer eductor) or to their discipline (economics, geogrphy, history) or to other chrcteristics. Most of the correltions (Person) between the judgements of the 13 replicted profiles in the first nd second round were r 0.75 (P 0.05) (with two outliers of r 0.55 nd r 0.63), indicting consistency of the pnellists judgements. According to the Mnn Whitney test (2-tiled), there ws no significnt difference between the pnellists who prticipted in the group discussion (n 5) nd those who hd n individul converstion with the resercher (n 4). The Pnel s Underlying Assumptions nd Perspectives Ech pnellist summrised the underlying ssumptions nd perspectives of his personl policy in few sttements. The resulting 26 sttements were scored by the pnellists on 5point scle (from 1 I gretly gree to 5 I gretly disgree). Explortory fctor nlysis followed by item nlyses resulted in three sufficiently relible Likert scles, ech consisting of five sttements. We illustrte ech scle with n exmple of sttement: (i) the extent to which the pnellists connect the criteri to ech other, e.g. ll criteri re connected, without the others they could not exist (Cronbch s α 0.85; men 2.42; minimum 1.75; mximum 3.44; vrince 0.54); (ii) the extent to which the pnellists wnt to reduce the judgementl model to one core, e.g. to shrpen the judgementl model the number of criteri should be reduced (Cronbch s α 0.84; men 1.95; minimum 1.67; mximum 2.44; vrince 0.13); (iii) the extent to which the pnellists re directed t the lerning environment of students, e.g. the choice of reserch ssignment is importnt becuse good ssignment is condition for students reserch skills to develop (Cronbch s α 0.74; men 2.22; minimum 1.44; mximum 3.33; vrince 0.47). The pnellists nswers were not relted to their professionl position or to their discipline nor to their personl judgementl policies. In some cses pnellists hd different resons for the sme judgements, while in other cses pnellists gve different judgements for the sme resons. This observtion ws confirmed by the correltions between the scores on the scles with sttements nd the stndrdised β vlues expressing the personl policies in the second round. Only 2 out of 24 correltions (3 scles 8 criteri) were significnt. The Pnel s Evlution of the Policy Cpturing Procedure The pnellists thought judging the profiles not to be very difficult nor esy. On 5point scle (1 esy; 5 difficult) the men score ws 2.9 in the first round nd 2.6 in the second round. Profiles with unequivocl positive or negtive scores on importnt criteri were esy to judge, wheres it ws difficult to judge profiles with both positive nd negtive scores on importnt criteri. The pnellists judged the ltter in some cses not to be relistic or to be rrely found in prctice. Secondly, lmost ll pnellists recognised themselves in their personl policy. Thirdly, for ll pnellists the feedbck given to them confirmed wht they hd previously thought to be importnt in judging techers. Conclusions In this study, the focus ws on the development of performnce stndrds for high stke techer ssessment purposes. During the 1990s severl performnce stndrd setting

13 Developing Performnce Stndrds 407 TABLE 3. Significnt (P 0.05) stndrdized βvlues per criterion per pnellist Pnellist Round 1. GOAL 2. ASSIGN 3. MANAG 4. THINK 5. TEACH 6. CLIM 7. ASSESS 8. REFL Not significnt (P 0.05)

14 408 M. F. vn der Schf et l. methods were developed tht cn be used for performnce ssessment. Those methods bsed on policy cpturing re prticulrly interesting becuse they cn be used for both the development of performnce stndrds nd to gin insight into the judgementl process (compenstory or conjunctive) s well s into the weights to be ttched to the criteri (Jeger, 1995). The disdvntges of this method re its difficulty for the judges nd the fct tht it is not cler how to foster consensus (which is seen s n indictor of success). In this study we ttempted to counter these difficulties by: creful selection of pnellists representing different opinions nd hving sufficient knowledge nd motivtion for their tsk; construction of the judgementl tsk from eight criteri bout which pnellists in n erlier study hd reched consensus; trining process; interim feedbck; group discussion using the nominl group technique; judgement of profiles in two rounds. To indicte its usefulness, we now summrise the min merits nd shortcomings of the policy cpturing procedure, s utilised in our study. Firstly, the procedure produced significnt nd consistent regression models. The pnellists judgements in the second round were more consistent thn in the first round. It is not precisely cler which intervention or combintion of interventions contributed to this growth in consistency. Secondly, we investigted whether we should follow compenstory or conjunctive model for combining subscores into finl judgement. Wheres it is relistic to ssume techers hve wek points tht they still hve to develop further nd it is importnt to void incorrect judgements cused by errors, we initilly preferred compenstory model. The results show tht both models represent the pnellists judgements nerly eqully well. We conclude tht there is no reson to bndon our preference for compenstory model. Thirdly, the pnellists greed rther strongly on the performnce stndrds ccompnying the eight criteri. In both rounds, the verge profile score needed for the judgement stisfctory turned out to lie between 2.1 nd 2.2. Hence, ccording to the lgorithm of the compenstory model, the cut-off profile score is 2.2. This outcome cn be used for portfolios tht re ssessed per criterion on 3-point scle (between 1 nd 3). Fourthly, the pnellists did not gree on the weights to be ttched to the criteri in the finl judgement. This result differs from tht of nother study on developing performnce stndrds (Hmbleton & Plke, 1995) in which judgement procedure in two rounds with interim discussion resulted in high greement on the pnel policy. This discrepncy might be explined in severl wys. The nominl group technique, in which pnellists publicly present their personl policies, could discourge individuls from chnging their initil response (Fitzptrick, 1989). However, the controls conducted did not show ny evidence for this. Next, it is possible tht the feedbck given hs been perceived fter ll s supporting the initil personl ides. Additionlly, our study might hve exerted less pressure to revise the initil policy becuse the pnellists knew they were prticipting in reserch project nd not in n uthentic summtive ssessment context. Also, the time spn per round ws possibly too short for the pnellists to revise their opinions. Policy cpturing could be more effective if it is undertken by pnellists working in the sme context, shring the sme frme of reference nd over longer timespn. Fifthly, our stkeholders perceived the eight criteri s being interwoven nd would welcome reduction in their number. This is not n unknown phenomenon. For exmple, the cdemic literture on ssessment centres revels tht during the ssess ment, judges merge criteri, prefer certin criteri or hve difficulty distinguishing

15 Developing Performnce Stndrds 409 criteri (Arthur et l., 2000). The interventions in our study to fmilirise the pnellists with the criteri, such s the trining nd the mnul, were pprently not sufficient to prevent this. Sixthly, in our study policy cpturing did not prove to be difficult procedure for the prticipnts. Profiles with consistently high or low scores on importnt criteri were reltively esy to judge, wheres profiles with inconsistent scores were perceived to be more difficult, especilly if the pnellists thought the profiles were unrelistic. Empiricl profiles might prevent this problem. We conclude tht the policy cpturing method, s used in our study, is useful method for stkeholders to develop performnce stndrds. The method is fesible for the pnellists nd leds to consistent performnce stndrds. The procedure followed brings bout lerning effect, resulting in more consistent judgements. This reserch should be seen in the context of growing interest in techer ssessment nd the need for suitble methods to develop performnce stndrds. We wnted to contribute by developing nd testing policy cpturing method. The need for new methods nd for reserch on this topic will remin for some time. It is importnt to fulfil this need for pproprite techer ssessment prctices to be relised. Acknowledgement This study ws funded by the Dutch Orgnistion for Scientific Reserch (NWO-PROO ). Notes on Contributors MARIEKE F. VAN DER SCHAAF is Ph.D. student nd eductionl resercher t the Deprtment of Eductionl Sciences, Utrecht University. Her min res of reserch include techer evlution nd teching nd ssessment of students reserch skills. Correspondence: Deprtment of Eductionl Sciences, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlnds. E-mil: m.vnderschf@fss.uu.nl KAREL M. STOKKING is Professor of Eduction t the Deprtment of Eductionl Sciences, Utrecht University. His res of interest include the development nd ssessment of generl nd cdemic skills in secondry nd higher eduction. NICO VERLOOP is Professor of Eduction nd Den of ICLON Grdute School of Eduction, Leiden University, The Netherlnds. He is immedite pst president of the Dutch Eductionl Reserch Assocition. His mjor reserch interests re techers prcticl knowledge, lerning nd professionl development of techers nd techer evlution. REFERENCES ARTHUR, W., WOEHR, D. J.& MALDEGEN, R.(2000) Convergent nd discriminnt vlidity of ssessment center dimensions: conceptul nd empiricl reexmintion of the ssessment center construct-relted vlidity prdox, Journl of Mngement, 26(4), pp BERK, R. A. (1996) Stndrd setting: the next genertion (where few psychometricins hve gone before!), Applied Mesurement in Eduction, 9(3), pp

16 410 M. F. vn der Schf et l. COOKSEY, R.W.(1996) Judgment Anlysis: theory, methods, nd ppliction (Sn Diego, CA, Acdemic Press). CROSS, L. H., IMPARA, J. C., FRARY, R. B.& JAEGER, R. M.(1984) A comprison of three methods for estblishing minimum stndrds on the Ntionl Techer exmintion, Journl of Eductionl Mesurement, 21, pp DAY, C.(1999) Developing Techers: the chllenges of lifelong lerning (London, Flmer Press). DELBECQ, A. L., VAN DE VEN, A. H.& GUSTAFSON, D. H.(1975) Group Techniques for Progrm Plnning: guide to nominl group nd delphi processes (Glenview, IL, Scott, Foresmn & Co.). ERAUT, M. E.(1994) Developing Professionl Knowledge nd Competence (London, Flmer Press). FITZPATRICK, A. R.(1989) Socil influences in stndrd setting: the effects of socil interction on group judgments, Review of Eductionl Reserch, 59(3), pp GONCZI, A.(1993) Competency bsed ssessment in the profession in Austrli, Assessment in Eduction Principles Policy nd Prctice, 1(1), pp HAMBLETON, R. K.(1997) Stndrd setting in criterion-referenced tests, in: J. P. KEEVES (Ed.) Eductionl Reserch, Methodology, nd Mesurement: n interntionl hndbook, 2nd edn, pp (Oxford, Elsevier Science). HAMBLETON, R. K.& PLAKE, B. S.(1995) Using n extended Angoff procedure for setting stndrds on complex performnce ssessments, Applied Mesurement in Eduction, 8, pp HUBERMAN, M.(1995) Professionl creers nd professionl development nd some intersections, in: T. GUSKY & M. HUBERMAN (Eds) Professionl Development in Eduction: new perspectives nd prctices, pp (New York, NY, Techer College Press). JAEGER, R. M.(1990) Setting stndrds on techer certifiction tests, in: J. MILLMAN & L. DARLING-HAM- MOND (Eds) The New Hndbook of Techer Evlution: ssessing elementry nd secondry school techers, pp (Newbury Prk, CA, Sge). JAEGER, R. M.(1995) Setting performnce stndrds through two-stge judgmentl Policy Cpturing, Applied Mesurement in Eduction, 8(1), pp KANE, M. (1994) Vlidting the performnce stndrds ssocited with pssing scores, Review of Eductionl Reserch, 64 (3), pp MEHRENS, W. A. (1990) Combining evlution dt from multiple sources, in: J. MILLMAN & L. DARLING-HAMMOND (Eds) The New Hndbook of Techer Evlution: ssessing elementry nd secondry school techers, pp (Newbury Prk, CA, Sge). PUTNAM, S. E., PENCE, P.& JAEGER, R. M.(1995) A multi-stge dominnt profile method for setting stndrds on complex performnce ssessments, Applied Mesurement in Eduction, 8(1), pp VAN DE PLIGT, J.(1997) Judgement nd decision mking, in: G. R. SEMIN & K. FIEDLER (Eds) Applied Socil Psychology, pp (London, Sge). VAN DER SCHAAF, M. F., STOKKING, K. M.& VERLOOP, N.(2003) Developing teching content stndrds using delphi method, submitted for publiction. WHEELER, P.& HAERTEL, G. D.(1993) Resource Hndbook on Performnce Assessment nd Mesurement: tool for students, prctitioners, nd policymkers (Berkeley, CA, Owl Press).

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