Teacher motivational strategies and student self-determination in physical education

Transcription

1 Loughborough University Institutionl Repository Techer motivtionl strtegies nd student self-determintion in physicl eduction This item ws submitted to Loughborough University's Institutionl Repository by the/n uthor. Cittion: TAYLOR, I.M. nd NTOUMANIS, N., Techer motivtionl strtegies nd student self-determintion in physicl eduction. Journl of Eductionl Psychology, 99 (4), pp Additionl Informtion: This rticle my not exctly replicte the finl version published in the APA journl. It is not the copy of record. Metdt Record: Version: Accepted for publiction Plese cite the published version.

2 This item ws submitted to Loughborough s Institutionl Repository ( by the uthor nd is mde vilble under the following Cretive Commons Licence conditions. For the full text of this licence, plese go to:

3 Tylor, I. M., & Ntoumnis, N. (2007). Techer motivtionl strtegies nd student selfdetermintion in physicl eduction. Journl of Eductionl Psychology, 99,

4 Abstrct Physicl Eduction techers cn influence students self-determintion through the motivtionl strtegies they use. This study exmined the reltionship between techers perceptions of clss verge self-determintion, the techers self-determintion, nd their reported use of three motivtionl strtegies: Autonomy support, structure, nd involvement. Furthermore, the reltionship between the three motivtionl strtegies, students perceptions of psychologicl need stisfction nd students' self-determintion ws exmined. Also, the reltionship between techers nd students self-determintion ws investigted. Multilevel nd stndrd regression nlyses reveled tht techers perceptions of clss verge self-determintion predicted their reported use of the motivtionl strtegies, nd this reltionship ws medited by their own selfdetermintion. Also, student perceptions of the three strtegies impcted positively upon their own self-determintion, nd this reltionship ws medited by their reported stisfction of utonomy nd competence. Finlly, techers self-determintion did not predict students self-determintion. The importnce of promoting n dptive motivtionl context for both techers nd students is discussed with reference to selfdetermintion theory.

5 Introduction Low levels of physicl ctivity in the youth popultion re of gret concern. In the U.K. over one third of children report ctivity levels tht my compromise their helth (Deprtment of Helth, 2004). Similrly, in the U.S. nerly qurter of nine to thirteen yer olds reported tht they do not engge in ny free-time physicl ctivity (Centers for Disese Control & Prevention, 2003). Low levels of physicl ctivity in the youth popultion hve been linked to numerous consequences, such s incresed risk of childhood obesity nd type II dibetes (Deprtment of Helth, 2004). Thus, it is impertive tht children nd dolescents re encourged to dopt physiclly ctive lifestyle. A logicl context to promote physiclly ctive lifestyles in children nd dolescents is the Physicl Eduction (PE) clss. Of prticulr importnce is how motivting PE clsses re for the students, s motivtion hs been empiriclly nd theoreticlly linked to number of importnt outcomes, such s prticiption in optionl PE (Ntoumnis, 2005) nd fter school sport prticiption (Gouds, Dermitzki, & Bgitis, 2001). Within PE, motivtionl theory tht hs received empiricl support is self-determintion theory (SDT; Ryn & Deci, 2002). SDT theorizes tht continuum of different types of motivtion exists depending upon the level of self-determintion tht n individul possesses. The most self-determined regultion is intrinsic motivtion which involves pursuing n ctivity for its own ske, becuse it is interesting nd enjoyble. Second, extrinsic motivtion refers to the pursuit of n ctivity to ttin n outcome seprte from the ctivity itself. Extrinsic motivtion cn be further divided, in descending order of self-determintion, into integrted (e.g., I prticipte in PE becuse it is prt of who I m ), identified (e.g., I prticipte in PE becuse I vlue the helth benefits ), introjected (e.g., I prticipte in PE becuse I would feel guilty otherwise ), nd externl (e.g., I prticipte in PE becuse I m forced to ) regultions. Integrted resons for undertking n ctivity hve not been

6 reported by dolescents in the empiricl literture, possibly due to n under developed sense of the self (Vllernd, 2001). Consequently, integrted regultion hs rrely been investigted in PE contexts. Finlly, motivtion refers to lck of either intrinsic or extrinsic motivtion to prtke in n ctivity. An motivted individul perceives no worthwhile resons for pursuing n ctivity nd hence is completely lcking in selfdetermintion. SDT further posits tht one s level of self-determintion is determined by the stisfction of three innte psychologicl needs, those of utonomy, competence nd reltedness. Autonomy refers to being the source of one s own behvior nd chieving congruence between the ctivity nd one s integrted sense of self. Competence refers to the need to hve n effect on the environment nd to chieve desired outcomes, nd reltedness is the desire to feel connected to vlued others (Ryn & Deci, 2002). The more these needs re stisfied, the greter the level of one s self-determintion. For exmple, individuls often trnsform externlly regulted behviors into behviors tht re selfdetermined (i.e., the process of internliztion), becuse the behviors re modeled or vlued by significnt others to whom these individuls feel relted (Ryn & Deci, 2000). Individuls re lso more likely to pursue n ctivity for self-determined resons if they feel competent becuse they cn identify link between their behvior nd desired outcomes (Ryn & Deci, 2000). Third, one cnnot function in fully self-determined mnner without sense of volition nd feeling tht the ctivity is concordnt with one s integrted sense of self (Ryn & Deci, 2000). It is importnt to promote self-determintion in PE clsses s empiricl reserch hs linked self-determintion to dptive consequences, such s higher concentrtion in the clss (Stndge, Dud, & Ntoumnis, 2005) nd effort (Ntoumnis, 2001). Perhps the fctor with the lrgest impct upon students self-determintion in PE is the techer nd

7 his/her teching style. Much of the reserch concerning teching style nd SDT hs exmined the teching style of utonomy support, which cn be considered s vriety of techer behviors (e.g. cknowledging students perspective, providing rtionle for n ctivity) tht enhnce students feelings of volition nd promote perceived internl locus of cuslity (Reeve, Nix, & Hmm, 2003). In PE, n utonomy-supportive environment hs been found to enhnce student intrinsic motivtion (e.g., Ntoumnis, 2005). SDT theorists lso suggest pivotl role for structure in the promotion of competence need stisfction (Connell & Wellborn, 1991). Structure refers to the mount nd qulity of informtion given to the students regrding techer expecttions, consequences of the students behvior, nd how students cn chieve desired outcomes (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Skinner & Belmont, 1993). Adjusting the gols set for students depending on the students bility is n exmple of the provision of structure. It is importnt tht structure is provided in n utonomy-supportive nd not controlling wy. A well-structured environment hs been shown to promote behviorl enggement in clssrooms (Skinner & Belmont, 1993); yet, no reserch hs considered structure in PE. SDT reserch hs lso exmined the teching strtegies tht promote feelings of reltedness. For exmple, Connell nd Wellborn (1991) suggest feelings of reltedness cn be fcilitted through the use of involvement strtegies, which they define s the degree of interest nd emotionl support shown by the techer to the student. Gining n understnding of student s fmily bckground would be n exmple of involvement. Within PE little ttention hs been given to the promotion of reltedness despite its importnt role in the internliztion process (Ryn & Deci, 2002). The present study ims to investigte the reltionship between the three motivtionl teching strtegies (i.e., utonomy support, structure, nd involvement) nd student self-determintion, nd whether these reltionships re medited by student

8 perceptions of psychologicl need stisfction. Deci nd Ryn (1987) rgued tht it is the functionl significnce of the socil context (i.e., the mening tht the student gives to the socil environment) tht is of importnce when predicting student self-determintion. Therefore, to test this rgument, the study ims to exmine the proposed motivtionl sequence using both techer nd student reports of the techers use of the three motivtionl strtegies. The degree to which utonomy support, structure, nd involvement re used by PE techers my be prtly influenced by the techers perception of the students selfdetermined motivtion. Socio-psychologicl reserch hypothesizes tht perceiver s beliefs bout trget influence his/her interctions with the trget (e.g., Snyder, 1984). In ddition, Skinner nd Belmont (1993) reported similr processes in the techer-student reltionship. Given the importnce of promoting utonomy support, structure, nd involvement, it is necessry to understnd the reltionship between techers perceptions of their students self-determintion nd their use of the three motivtionl strtegies. In n experimentl setting, Pelletier nd Vllernd (1996) rndomly llocted university students the role of student or techer. Techers were then led to believe tht the students were either intrinsiclly or extrinsiclly motivted, or no informtion ws given to the techers. Students who were believed by the techer to be intrinsiclly motivted perceived their techers s being more utonomy supportive compred to perceived extrinsiclly motivted students, who reported their techers s being more controlling. Further, the perceived intrinsiclly motivted students reported greter intrinsic interest nd spent more free-choice time on the tsk. The degree to which the findings from Pelletier nd Vllernd (1996) pply to school environment is not known, becuse the techers perception of students motivtion were bsed on potentilly inccurte informtion nd lso the techer-student reltionship

9 ws newly formed. Subsequently, in nturlistic setting, Pelletier, Seguin-Levesque, nd Legult (2002) found tht the more techers perceived students to be self-determined, the higher their self-determintion towrds teching, nd in turn the more utonomy supportive they perceived themselves to be. It is cler from Pelletier nd collegues findings tht reltionship exists between techers perceptions of their students selfdetermintion nd their use of utonomy support, nd this reltionship my be medited by the techers self-determintion. The present study ims to extend these findings to PE nd to exmine the reltionships between two other strtegies (i.e., structure nd involvement) nd techers perceptions of their clss self-determintion, s well s techers own selfdetermintion. Besides exmining the reltionship between techer perceptions of clss selfdetermintion nd techer self-determintion, it is of interest to investigte the ssocition between students nd techers self-reported self-determintion. Limited reserch hs exmined the reltionship between the ctul motivtion of the two prties. An exception is study by Atkinson (2000) which sked students in design nd technology clsses to report how much they greed with 14 motivtion-relted sttements (e.g., I hve been motivted to complete my design nd technology project ). Results indicted tht students who were tught by motivted techers (s rted by three university lecturers who hd significnt knowledge of the techers) reported higher motivtion, compred to those tught by less motivted techers. However, the smll number of techers used in the study (i.e., four) mens tht the results should be interpreted with cution. Also, Atkinson s (2000) study did not ssess techers self-reports of their own motivtion. To ddress some of these limittions, the present study lso imed to exmine the reltionship between techer nd student self-reported self-determintion.

10 From n pplied perspective, it is lso interesting to exmine how relted PE techer nd student perceptions of utonomy support, structure, nd involvement re. Previous reserch in the cdemic domin hs indicted tht student nd techer perceptions of motivtionl teching strtegies my be somewht relted. For exmple, Skinner nd Belmont (1993), using self-report mesures of techers nd third to fifth grde students lte in the cdemic yer, found tht techer perceptions of involvement nd utonomy support were modestly correlted with student perceptions of the corresponding strtegy (r =.23 nd r =.20, respectively). There is need to investigte whether similr reltionship exists between techer nd student perceptions in PE becuse of the obvious differences in physicl environments between PE nd clssroom-bsed lessons. It is lso of prticulr importnce to scertin how ccurte techers re t ssessing students selfdetermintion becuse techer perceptions re centrl to this investigtion, s well s in mny importnt psychologicl processes, such s behviorl confirmtion (see Snyder, 1984). If techers perception of student self-determintion prtly determines the motivtionl strtegies they use, then the ccurcy of the techers perceptions is importnt when choosing the most pproprite motivtionl strtegies to employ with their clss. Using proxy indictors of motivtion, Skinner nd Belmont (1993) found tht techer nd student reports of behviorl enggement were modertely correlted erly (r =.31) nd lter (r =.35) in the cdemic yer. To summrize, the present study imed primrily to investigte three types of reltionships involving motivtionl vribles. First, bsed on nd extending Pelletier et l. s (2002) findings, it ws hypothesized tht techer perceptions of their clss selfdetermintion would positively predict the techers reports of their use of utonomy support, structure, nd involvement. Additionlly, these reltionships would be medited by the techers self-determintion to tech the clss (hypothesis 1). Second, bsed on

11 previous SDT reserch in PE nd in clssrooms (e.g., Ntoumnis, 2005; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), it ws expected tht student reports of techer utonomy support, structure, nd involvement would positively predict student self-determintion in the PE clss. Furthermore, in greement with Connell nd Wellborn (1991), it ws hypothesized tht ech strtegy s reltionship with student self-determintion would be medited by the corresponding psychologicl need (i.e., student perceptions of utonomy need stisfction would medite the prediction mde by utonomy support, student perceptions of competence would medite the effect of structure, nd student perceptions of reltedness would medite the prediction mde by involvement, hypothesis 2). Conversely, given tht techer behvior s perceived by the students is of greter importnce, compred to corresponding techer reports, when predicting student self-determintion (Deci & Ryn, 1987), it ws expected tht techers reports of their motivtionl strtegies would not significntly predict student perceptions of need stisfction or student self-determintion (hypothesis 2b). Third, extrpolting from the findings by Atkinson (2000), it ws hypothesized tht techer self-determintion would be positively relted to student selfdetermintion (hypothesis 3). No previous reserch hs exmined the reltionship between techer nd student individul motivtionl regultions, therefore, no priori hypotheses were formed. A secondry purpose of the study ws to exmine the reltionships between techer nd student reports of techer use of motivtionl strtegies nd student self-determintion, respectively. Bsed on the second wve of findings by Skinner nd Belmont (1993), it ws hypothesized tht techer perceptions of their use of utonomy support would predict student perceptions of techer utonomy support. It ws predicted tht the sme would hold for techer nd student perceptions of structure nd involvement, respectively (hypothesis 4). Also, extrpolting from the findings by Skinner nd Belmont (1993), the

12 techers perceptions of student individul motivtionl regultions nd overll selfdetermintion were expected to predict the students reports of the corresponding motivtionl regultion nd overll self-determintion, respectively (hypothesis 5). It is importnt to note tht we sked PE techers to consider their teching strtegies towrds one prticulr clss nd their motivtion to tech tht clss, s opposed to thinking bout their teching strtegies nd motivtion to tech in generl. Method Prticipnts The initil student smple comprised of 1083 British PE students. However, students who did not complete the entire questionnire were excluded from the nlyses, s were those students whom we were not ble to mtch with their techer s rtings of student motivtion. Hence, ll nlyses were bsed on finl smple of 787 PE students (399 boys, 371 girls, nd 17 unspecified; ge: M =12.81, SD =1.42, rnge =11-16 yers), tught by 51 different PE techers (25 mle, 26 femle; ge: M =29.60, SD = 7.56, rnge = yers) from 13 schools in Englnd. Mesures All questionnire items were nswered using 7-point scle, nchored by 1 (not t ll true) nd 7 (very true), except the questionnire ssessing techers self-determintion to tech the clss, which ws nchored by 1 (does not correspond t ll) nd 7 (corresponds exctly). Techer Perceptions of Autonomy Support, Structure, nd Involvement. Techers were sked to evlute their use of the three strtegies in their PE clss using short techer version of the Techer s Socil Context Questionnire (TASCQ; Wellborn, Connell, Skinner, & Pierson, 1988). Ech subscle comprised of eight items, exmples of which re, I tlk to the students bout how we cn use things we lern in PE (utonomy

13 support), I lwys tell the students wht I expect of them in PE (structure), nd I know the students well (involvement). Previous reserch (e.g., Skinner & Belmont, 1993) using longer version of this questionnire hs demonstrted cceptble internl consistency for the three subscles. In the present study, Cronbch s lph coefficients were α =.76 (utonomy support), α =.64 (structure), nd α =.74 (involvement). After further exmintion of the structure subscle, the item I m lwys cting differently when the students do something wrong ws deleted nd this incresed the Cronbch s lph coefficient to α =.70. Student Perceptions of Techer Autonomy Support, Structure, nd Involvement. Students were sked to evlute their techers use of the bove three strtegies using the short student version of the TASCQ (Belmont, Skinner, Wellborn & Connell, 1988). The 24 items prlleled the techer version s much s possible. Skinner nd Belmont (1993) demonstrted the internl consistency of longer version of the questionnire. In the present study Cronbch s lph coefficients were α =.75 (utonomy support), α =.69 (structure), nd α =.78 (involvement). Techer Self-determintion to Tech the Clss. Techers self-determintion to tech their clss ws mesured using the Situtionl Motivtion Scle (SIMS; Guy, Vllernd, & Blnchrd, 2000) with the items dpted to reflect resons for teching the clss 1. Four dditionl items dpted to teching from motivtionl regultion questionnire devised by Gouds, Biddle, nd Fox (1994) were included in the present study to reflect techers introjected regultion. Techers responded to the question Why do you tech this clss, in generl? followed by four items for ech subscle mesuring intrinsic motivtion (e.g., Becuse teching this clss is fun ), identified regultion (e.g., Becuse I think teching this clss is good for myself ), introjected regultion (e.g., Becuse I wnt my collegues to think I m good techer ), externl regultion (e.g.,

14 Becuse I don t hve the choice ), nd motivtion (e.g., I don t know, I don t see wht teching this clss gives me ). Acceptble relibilities for the four subscles of the SIMS hve been previously reported by Guy et l. (2000). Cronbch s lph coefficients in the present study were α =.91 (intrinsic motivtion), α =.73 (identified regultion), α =.59 (introjected regultion), α =.70 (externl regultion), nd α =.70 (motivtion). After further exmintion, the item Becuse it would bother me if I sked not to tech the clss ws deleted from the introjections subscle, which incresed the Cronbch s lph coefficient to α =.70. Replicting previous SDT-bsed reserch (e.g., Ntoumnis, 2005), nd following guidelines provided by Vllernd (2001), self-determintion index (SDI) ws clculted to reflect the techers degree of self-determintion. Specificlly, ech subscle score ws multiplied by n ssigned weight ccording to its position on the selfdetermintion continuum. The product scores were then summed to form n index of selfdetermintion. The weights used were 3 (intrinsic motivtion), 2 (integrted regultion), 1 (identified regultion), -1 (introjected regultion), -2 (externl regultion), nd -3 (motivtion). Techer Perceptions of Student Self-determintion. Techers were sked to evlute ech individul student s self-determintion in their clss by responding to the stem Student X tkes prt in PE clsses. One item ws used for ech regultion: Becuse student X thinks PE is enjoyble (intrinsic motivtion), Becuse student X thinks it is importnt to do well in PE (identified regultion), Becuse student X wnts other students to think he/she is skilful in PE (introjected regultion), Becuse student X thinks he/she will get into trouble if he/she doesn t (externl regultion), nd But student X doesn t know wht he/she gets out of PE (motivtion). Using similr procedure s the one used for the clcultion of techers self-determintion, SDI ws clculted to reflect techer perceptions of student self-determintion. When computing SDI without

15 n integrted regultion subscle, Vllernd (2001) recommends weights of 2 (intrinsic motivtion), 1 (identified regultion), -1 (verge of introjected nd externl regultion), nd -2 (motivtion). Further, in order to test the first hypothesis, clss verge SDI ws computed by verging the individul SDI scores. Student Perceptions of Need Stisfction. Students were sked to report the degree of stisfction of their three psychologicl needs in the specified PE clss by responding to 16 items. Stisfction of utonomy ws mesured using six items previously employed by Stndge et l. (2005) tht followed the stem When I m in this PE clss. An exmple item is I cn decide wht ctivities I wnt to prctice. Competence in the specified PE clss ws mesured using the five items tht comprise the perceived competence subscle of the Intrinsic Motivtion Inventory (IMI; McAuley, Duncn, & Tmmen, 1989), dpted to the PE domin. An exmple item is I m pretty skilled in this PE clss. Reltedness ws mesured using five items from the cceptnce subscle of the Need for Reltedness Scle (Richer & Vllernd, 1998). These five items were modified to reflect the PE context. An exmple item is In this PE clss I feel supported. The three subscles hve demonstrted cceptble internl relibility in previous PE-bsed studies (e.g., Ntoumnis, 2001; Stndge et l., 2005). In the present study the Cronbch s lph coefficients were α =.75 (utonomy), α =.79 (competence), nd α =.87 (reltedness). Student Self-determintion. Students reported their motivtionl regultions using questionnire developed by Gouds et l. (1994). Ech motivtionl regultion comprised of four items which followed the stem I tke prt in this PE clss. Subscles in the questionnire were intrinsic motivtion (e.g., Becuse I enjoy lerning new skills ), identified regultion (e.g., Becuse I wnt to improve in sport ), introjected regultion (e.g., Becuse I would feel bd if I didn t ), externl regultion (e.g., So tht the techer doesn t shout t me ), nd motivtion (e.g., But I think I m wsting my time ). Agin,

16 previous PE-bsed reserch hs demonstrted the internl consistency of the five subscles (e.g., Ntoumnis, 2001; Stndge et l., 2005). In the present study, the five subscles hd Cronbch s lph coefficients of α =.87 (intrinsic), α =.83 (identified), α =.70 (introjected), α =.76 (externl), nd α =.80 (motivtion). A SDI ws clculted to reflect the degree of student self-determintion using the sme weights s those used for the computtion of techer perceptions of student SDI. Procedures Consent forms were obtined from the prticipting schools, the techers cting in loco prentis, nd the students who prticipted in the study. The students completed the questionnires nonymously nd individully t the beginning of timetbled PE clss under the supervision of reserch ssistnts. For ethicl resons, their respective PE techer ws lso present in the room; however, he/she remined distl to the students to void bising the students responses. The study ws introduced nd explined to the techer prior to the lesson, nd to the students t the beginning of the lesson. Students nd techers were sked to nswer honestly nd were told tht there ws no right or wrong nswers. To keep responses nonymous, student nd techer responses were mtched by coding system tht ws bsed on the clss register. Dt Anlyses An ssumption of mny trditionl sttisticl methods is tht the dt for ech individul re independent, n ssumption tht is violted when students re nested within clsses. This is becuse students in the sme clss re more likely to be similr to ech other thn to students from different clsses. Using trditionl lest squres regression nlysis with nested dt results in n underestimtion of the stndrd errors of regression coefficients nd, subsequently, n overestimtion of sttisticl significnce (Hox, 2002). Additionlly, when vribles from techers nd students re exmined using conventionl,

17 single-level regression models, the techer vribles re disggregted cross ll students in their clss (i.e. students in the sme clss hve the sme techer vlue). As result, the smple size for the nlysis is the higher number of disggregted cses. This is likely to increse the likelihood for Type I error (Hox, 2002). To ccount for these sttisticl issues, multilevel modeling using MLwin softwre (version 2.02; Rshbsh, Steele, Browne, & Prosser, 2005) ws employed in the present study when exmining hypotheses referring to student level vribles (i.e., hypotheses 2-5). Techer nd student gender were dummy coded (mles = 0 nd femles = 1) nd controlled for in ll nlyses. All other vribles were trnsformed into z-scores (i.e., ll vribles hd M =0 nd SD =1) to id interprettion of the results (Hox, 2002) nd to void high correltions between the intercept nd slopes of the predictor vribles (Kreft & DeLeeuw, 1998). In ll multilevel nlyses individul level predictor vribles (i.e., ll student vribles nd techer perceptions of student selfdetermintion) were entered into multilevel models s rndom coefficients 2. A primry purpose of the study ws to test the hypothesis tht the techers perceptions of clss verge self-determintion predict the techers reported level of use of the three motivtionl strtegies. Three stndrd regression models were constructed with clss verge of techers perceptions of student self-determintion s the independent vrible nd ech motivtionl strtegy s the dependent vrible. Next, if the models were significnt, possible medition effects of techers self-determintion were tested by following four steps described by Bron nd Kenny (1986). Multilevel modeling ws not needed for this purpose of the study, s ll vribles were t the clss level nd there were no student level vribles (ll clsses hd different techer, therefore, the techer nd the clss is the sme level in this study). Second, the hypothesis tht student perceptions of the motivtionl strtegies would predict student self-determintion ws tested by constructing multilevel regression

18 model with student perceptions of utonomy support, structure nd involvement s the predictor vribles nd student SDI s the dependent vrible. If these reltionships were significnt, the procedures described by Bron nd Kenny (1986), s pplied to testing lower level medition (i.e., both the predictor nd meditor re level one vribles) in multilevel nlysis by Krull nd McKinnon (2001) were followed to exmine the mediting role of student perceptions of utonomy, competence, nd reltedness. To test similr motivtionl sequence with techer reports of the motivtionl strtegies insted of student perceptions s the predictor vribles, this procedure ws repeted using Krull nd McKinnon s (2001) guidelines concerning multilevel medition nlysis with level two vribles s the predictors. Third, the reltionship between techer nd student self-determintion ws exmined by constructing multilevel regression model with techer reports of selfdetermintion (level 2 vrible) predicting student self-determintion (level 1 vrible). Similr multilevel regression models were constructed with techer reports of ech motivtionl regultion predicting student reports of the corresponding regultion. Fourth, the reltionship between techers nd students perceptions of techer motivtionl strtegies ws ssessed. To this effect, three multilevel regression models predicting students perception of ech of the motivtionl strtegies (level 1 vrible) were constructed with techer perceptions of the corresponding motivtionl strtegy (level 2 vrible) s the independent vrible. Finlly, the reltionship between student nd techer perceptions of student selfdetermintion ws exmined using similr method. A multilevel regression model ws constructed with techer perceptions of student self-determintion predicting student reports of their own self-determintion. Also, five multilevel regression models predicting

19 ech student regultion were constructed with techer perceptions of the corresponding student motivtionl regultion s the independent vrible. Results Descriptive sttistics nd correltion coefficients Tble 4.1 reports mens, stndrd devitions nd Person s bivrite correltions for ll student level vribles. In generl, students reported higher levels of intrinsic nd identified regultion thn introjected nd externl regultion, with motivtion scores being the lowest. The techers gve reltively similr rtings of student self-determintion; however, they perceived their students to hve lower levels of introjected nd externl regultion thn wht the students ctully reported. In reltion to perceived psychologicl need stisfction, students reported high levels of competence nd moderte levels of utonomy nd reltedness. The students lso perceived their techers to provide resonbly high levels of structure nd involvement, nd moderte levels of utonomy support. Theoreticlly expected ptterns cn be seen in the correltions between the three psychologicl needs, the three strtegies nd the different types of regultion (i.e. positive correltions between the needs/strtegies nd self-determined regultions, nd negtive correltions between the needs/strtegies nd externl regultion/motivtion). Techers perceived they provided moderte levels of utonomy support (M = 4.94, SD = 0.85), nd high levels of involvement (M = 5.51, SD = 0.78) nd structure (M = 5.59, SD = 0.73). Moreover, techers were modertely self-determined (M = 5.65, SD = 4.62, rnge = -18 to 18). Vrince Components Intrclss correltion coefficients rnged from.19 to.23 for student perceptions of motivtionl strtegies,.21 to.71 for techer perceptions of student individul motivtionl regultions nd overll self-determintion, nd.11 to.19 for student

20 Tble 4.1 Descriptive Sttistics nd Correltions mong Individul Level Vribles Vrible M SD Student Perceptions of (SP) utonomy support 2. SP structure SP involvement SP Autonomy SP Competence SP Reltedness SP Intrinsic motivtion SP Identified regultion SP Introjected regultion SP Externl regultion SP Amotivtion Student Selfdetermintion Index Techer perceptions of.85 student (TPS) intrinsic motivtion TPS identified regultion TPS introjected regultion 16. TPS externl regultion TPS motivtion TPS Self-determintion Index Note. N = 787. All correltions bove +/-.06 re significnt t p <.05. All correltions bove +/-.09 re significnt t p <.01. SP: Student perceptions of TPS: Techer perceptions of student

21 Tble 4.2 Stndrdized Bet Coefficients, Stndrd Errors nd Sobel z Scores for the Hypothesized Medition Models of Techer Perceptions of Clss Averge Self-Determintion (Predictor), Techer SDI (Meditor), nd Techer Perceptions of Autonomy Support, Structure, nd Involvement (Outcomes). Medition Process Perceptions of Clss Averge Selfdetermintion Techer SDI Autonomy Support Perceptions of Clss Averge Selfdetermintion Techer SDI Structure Perceptions of Clss Averge Selfdetermintion Techer SDI Involvement Step Predictor Outcome ß (SE) 1 2 Perceptions of Clss Selfdetermintion Perceptions of Clss Selfdetermintion Autonomy Support.39 (.03)*** Techer SDI.66 (.03)*** 3 Techer SDI Autonomy Support.11 (.04)* 4 Sobel z score 1 2 Perceptions of Clss Selfdetermintion Perceptions of Clss Selfdetermintion Perceptions of Clss Selfdetermintion Autonomy Support.32 (.04)*** 2.49* Structure.07 (.04)* Techer SDI.66 (.03)*** 3 Techer SDI Structure -.06 (.05) Perceptions of Clss Selfdetermintion Perceptions of Clss Selfdetermintion Perceptions of Clss Selfdetermintion Structure.12 (.05)* Involvement.46 (.03)*** Techer SDI.66 (.03)*** 3 Techer SDI Involvement.13 (.04)** 4 Perceptions of Clss Selfdetermintion Sobel z score Note. N = 51. * p<.05. ** p<.01. *** p<.001 Involvement.38 (.04)*** 2.96** 73

22 perceptions of need stisfction, individul motivtionl regultions nd overll selfdetermintion. These coefficients indicte tht between 11% nd 71% of the vrince in the individul vribles ws t the clss level, suggesting the need to use multilevel nlyses with the present dt. Techer perceptions of clss verge self-determintion nd techer self-determintion s predictors of techer reported use of the motivtionl strtegies Techer perceptions of clss verge self-determintion significntly predicted their reported use of utonomy support (ß =.39, p <.001), involvement (ß =.46, p <.001), nd structure (ß =.07, p <.05). We were then interested to exmine whether these reltionships re medited by the techers self-determintion. The first step of Bron nd Kenny s (1986) guidelines for estblishing medition is tht the independent vrible must significntly predict the dependent vrible. In view of the results bove, ll three strtegies met this criterion. The second step proposed by Bron nd Kenny (1986) stipultes tht the independent vrible must significntly predict the meditor (techer SDI). Third, the meditor must significntly predict the outcome vrible fter controlling for the independent vrible. If the bet coefficient of the independent vrible is less when both the independent vrible nd meditor re included s predictors, compred to when only the independent vrible is included, then medition cn be inferred. In such cses, the sttisticl significnce of the indirect effect is exmined with the Sobel z sttistic (Sobel, 1982). The results of the hypothesized medition models with techer perceptions of clss verge self-determintion s the predictor, techer self-determintion s the meditor, nd utonomy support, structure, nd involvement s outcomes re presented in Tble 4.2. Techer SDI did not predict provision of structure fter controlling for techer perceptions of clss verge self-determintion (step 3); hence medition effects were not 74

23 found. However, for both utonomy support nd involvement ll the pths prescribed by the medition steps were significnt, confirming the hypothesized medition. Students nd techers perceptions of motivtionl strtegies nd student perceptions of need stisfction s predictors of student self-determintion Results of multilevel nlyses showed tht student SDI ws significntly predicted by student perceptions of utonomy support (ß =.19, p <.001), structure (ß =.22, p <.001), nd involvement (ß =.22, p <.001). Consequently, to test the hypothesis tht ech of the bove reltionships is medited by student perceptions of utonomy, competence, nd reltedness, the guidelines offered by Krull nd McKinnon (2001) were followed. The uthors rgued tht Bron nd Kenny s (1986) suggestion to clculte the reduction in the bet coefficient of the independent vrible from the first to the finl step might not be very informtive in models with multiple meditors such s the one tested here, becuse the effects of ech meditor cnnot be differentited. Thus, Krull nd McKinnon (2001) suggested tht the interprettion of medition in multiple meditor models should be bsed on the exmintion of the indirect effects through ech meditor (i.e., the Sobel z score of ech medition pthwy). Tble 4.3 shows the stndrdized bet coefficients nd stndrd errors of ll pths in the medition model, s well s the specific indirect effects through ech meditor (note tht step 4 is not reported in this tble). As shown, student perceptions of reltedness did not significntly predict student SDI (in step 3), hence, reltedness ws not found to medite reltionships between the three strtegies nd student SDI. Nonetheless, utonomy support s reltionship with student SDI ws found to be medited by student perceptions of utonomy. Also, the reltionship between structure nd student SDI ws found to be medited by student perceptions of competence. Third, the reltionship between involvement nd student SDI ws found to be medited by student perceptions of utonomy nd competence. 75

24 Tble 4.3 Stndrdized Bet Coefficients nd Stndrd Errors of the Hypothesized Multiple Medition Model of Student Perceptions of Motivtionl Strtegies (Predictors), Psychologicl Need Stisfction (Meditors), nd Student SDI (Outcome) Medition Process Autonomy Support Autonomy Student SDI Autonomy Support Competence Student SDI Autonomy Support Reltedness Student SDI Structure Autonomy Student SDI Structure Competence Student SDI Structure Reltedness Student SDI Involvement Autonomy Student SDI Involvement Competence Student SDI Involvement Reltedness Student SDI Step Predictor Outcome ß (SE) 1 Autonomy Support Student SDI.19 (.04)*** 2 Autonomy Support Autonomy.30 (.05)*** 3 Autonomy Student SDI.14 (.04)*** Indirect Effect.04 (.01)*** 1 Autonomy Support Student SDI.19 (.04)*** 2 Autonomy Support Competence.06 (.05) 3 Competence Student SDI Indirect Effect 1 Autonomy Support Student SDI.19 (.04)*** 2 Autonomy Support Reltedness.16 (.04)*** 3 Reltedness Student SDI.08 (.04) Indirect Effect 1 Structure Student SDI.22 (.05)*** 2 Structure Autonomy.05 (.04) 3 Autonomy Student SDI Indirect Effect 1 Structure Student SDI.22 (.05)*** 2 Structure Competence.14 (.05)** 3 Competence Student SDI.42 (.03)*** Indirect Effect.05 (.02)** 1 Structure Student SDI.22 (.05)*** 2 Structure Reltedness.16 (.04)*** 3 Reltedness Student SDI.08 (.04) Indirect Effect 1 Involvement Student SDI.22 (.06)*** 2 Involvement Autonomy.25 (.05)*** 3 Autonomy Student SDI.14 (.04)*** Indirect Effect.03 (.01)** 1 Involvement Student SDI.22 (.06)*** 2 Involvement Competence.28 (.06)*** 3 Competence Student SDI.42 (.03)*** Indirect Effect.09 (.02)*** 1 Involvement Student SDI.22 (.06)*** 2 Involvement Reltedness.43 (.04)*** 3 Reltedness Student SDI.08 (.04) Indirect Effect Note. N = 787. * p <.05. ** p <.01. *** p <.001. Indictes tht the preceding step in the medition process ws not significnt, therefore this step ws not crried out. 76

25 Tble 4.4 Stndrdized Bet Coefficients nd Stndrd Errors of the Hypothesized Multiple Medition Model of Techer Perceptions of Motivtionl Strtegies (Predictors), Psychologicl Need Stisfction (Meditors), nd Student SDI (Outcome) Medition Process Autonomy Support Autonomy Student SDI Autonomy Support Competence Student SDI Autonomy Support Reltedness Student SDI Structure Autonomy Student SDI Structure Competence Student SDI Structure Reltedness Student SDI Involvement Autonomy Student SDI Involvement Competence Student SDI Involvement Reltedness Student SDI Step Predictor Outcome ß (SE) 1 Autonomy Support Student SDI -.13 (.06)* 2 Autonomy Support Autonomy.02 (.07) 3 Autonomy Student SDI Indirect Effect 1 Autonomy Support Student SDI -.13 (.06)* 2 Autonomy Support Competence -.05 (.07) 3 Competence Student SDI Indirect Effect 1 Autonomy Support Student SDI -.13 (.06)* 2 Autonomy Support Reltedness -.10 (.07) 3 Reltedness Student SDI Indirect Effect 1 Structure Student SDI.02 (.06) 2 Structure Autonomy 3 Autonomy Student SDI Indirect Effect 1 Structure Student SDI.02 (.06) 2 Structure Competence 3 Competence Student SDI Indirect Effect 1 Structure Student SDI.02 (.06) 2 Structure Reltedness 3 Reltedness Student SDI Indirect Effect 1 Involvement Student SDI.23 (.07)*** 2 Involvement Autonomy.11 (.08) 3 Autonomy Student SDI Indirect Effect 1 Involvement Student SDI.23 (.07)*** 2 Involvement Competence.12 (.07) 3 Competence Student SDI Indirect Effect 1 Involvement Student SDI.23 (.07)*** 2 Involvement Reltedness.23 (.07)** 3 Reltedness Student SDI.20 (.05)*** Indirect Effect.04 (.02)* Note. N = 51 techers nd 787 students * p <.05. ** p <.01. *** p <.001. Indictes tht the preceding step in the medition process ws not significnt, therefore this step ws not crried out. 77

26 A different pttern of results occurred when we exmined techers reports of the three strtegies. Techer reports of involvement positively predicted student SDI (ß =.23, p <.001), utonomy support negtively predicted student SDI (ß = -.13, p <.05), however, structure did not predict student SDI (ß =.02, p >.05). Consequently, medition nlysis ws not conducted with provision of structure s the predictor vrible becuse this nonsignificnt reltionship indicted tht the first step of medition ws not met. The results of the hypothesized multiple medition model of techer perceptions of involvement nd utonomy support predicting student SDI vi student perceptions of the three psychologicl needs re presented in Tble 4.4. As shown, techer reports of involvement did not significntly predict student perceptions of either utonomy or competence, hence, no medition effects were found. However, with student perceptions of reltedness s the meditor, ll medition steps were significnt indicting tht reltedness medited the involvement-student SDI reltionship. Techer perceptions of utonomy support did not predict ny student perceptions of the three psychologicl needs, hence no medition effects were found in the utonomy support-student SDI reltionship. The reltionship between techers nd students self-determintion Results of multilevel nlyses showed tht techers self-determintion did not predict individul students self-determintion (ß =.08, p >.05). Furthermore, nonsignificnt reltionships were lso found between techer nd student self-reports of intrinsic motivtion (ß =.09, p >.05), identified regultion (ß =.04, p >.05), introjected regultion (ß =.05, p >.05), externl regultion (ß = -.11, p >.05), nd motivtion (ß =.05, p >.05). The reltionship between techers nd students perceptions of techer motivtionl strtegies 78

27 Multilevel nlyses reveled tht techers reports of their use of involvement strtegies predicted student perceptions of techer involvement (ß =.24, p <.001). Interestingly, techer perceptions of utonomy support nd structure were not relted with student perceptions of the corresponding strtegy (ß =.12, p >.05 nd ß = -.04, p >.05, respectively). The reltionship between the techers nd students perceptions of student selfdetermintion nd motivtionl regultions Multilevel nlyses showed tht techer perceptions of student SDI significntly predicted student reports of their own SDI (ß =.19, p <.001). Furthermore, techer perceptions of student intrinsic motivtion (ß =.35, p <.001), identified regultion (ß =.29, p <.001), introjected regultion (ß =.12, p <.01), nd motivtion (ß =.20, p <.001) were significnt predictors of student reports of the corresponding motivtionl regultion. Techer perceptions of student externl regultion (ß = -.08, p >.05) did not significntly predict the corresponding student report. Discussion The primry purpose of the study ws to test three types of reltionships involving motivtionl vribles. First, we investigted whether techers perceptions of clss verge self-determintion predicted the techers reported use of three motivtionl strtegies (i.e., utonomy support, structure, nd involvement), nd whether this reltionship ws medited by the techers self-determintion to tech the clss. Second, we exmined the reltionship between the three strtegies (from both the students nd techers perspective) nd student self-determintion, nd whether this reltionship ws medited by student perceptions of psychologicl need stisfction. Third, we exmined the reltionship between techers nd students self-determintion. A secondry purpose of the study ws to exmine the reltionship between techers nd students perceptions 79

28 of the degree to which techers use the three motivtionl strtegies, s well s the reltionship between techers nd students reports of student self-determintion nd motivtionl regultions. Techers perceptions of clss verge self-determintion nd techers selfdetermintion s predictors of the three motivtionl strtegies Our hypothesis tht techers perceptions of clss verge self-determintion would predict their reported use of the three motivtionl strtegies ws supported for ll three strtegies. Previous reserch (Pelletier et l., 2002; Pelletier & Vllernd, 1996) hs indicted link between techer perceptions of student self-determintion nd utonomy support. The present study extends these findings to the PE context nd suggests positive reltionship between techer perceptions of clss verge self-determintion nd the use of not only utonomy support, but lso involvement nd structure. These findings imply tht clsses perceived by the techer s low in self-determintion my receive less dptive motivtionl strtegies which my further diminish their self-determintion (see hypothesis two). In contrst, clsses high in self-determintion my receive higher levels of utonomy support, structure, nd involvement which could sustin or further fcilitte clss selfdetermintion. Consequently, these processes my potentilly led to lrge inter-clss differences in self-determintion. The medition models for utonomy support nd involvement give some insight into the processes by which techers perceptions of clss self-determintion re ssocited with techers use of these two motivtionl strtegies. Techers perception of clss selfdetermintion positively predicted their own self-determintion to tech tht clss. In turn, the more self-determined the techers were, the higher the level of utonomy support nd involvement they provided. The mediting effect of techers self-determintion is congruent with the finding by Pelletier et l. (2002), lthough these uthors mesured self- 80

29 determintion to tech in generl, s opposed to teching specific clss. The finding tht techer self-determintion predicted the techers use of involvement nd utonomy support but not structure (step 3 in the medition nlyses) is explinble. If techer is high in self-determintion to tech clss, then he or she my put more effort into gining n understnding of the students (i.e., more involvement). Also, techer low in selfdetermintion my perceive utonomy-supportive strtegies s requiring too much effort, wheres controlling strtegies my seem esier (Reeve, 1998). In contrst, structure refers to giving guidelines nd highlighting expecttions to the PE clss with less emphsis being given on building reltionship with the students. Therefore, this strtegy my be perceived s requiring less effort by the techers. Thus, vritions in techer selfdetermintion my not predict provision of structure. The reltionship between techer self-determintion nd use of utonomy support nd involvement hs implictions for future reserch. In similr mnner to techers creting n environment tht is controlling to students, the school eduction uthorities (e.g., governmentl policies, hed techers) cn crete pressurizing environments for techers, which my diminish techers self-determintion nd which, in turn, my led the techers to use less dptive motivtionl strtegies with their students. Therefore, future reserch is required tht focuses on contextul fctors tht determine techer selfdetermintion. Perceptions of motivtionl strtegies nd student perceptions of need stisfction s predictors of student self-determintion In support of SDT, the results of the present study reveled tht students perceptions of the level of utonomy support, structure, nd involvement provided by their techers positively predicted their degree of self-determintion. Further, these reltionships were found to be medited by student perceptions of utonomy nd 81

30 competence. More specificlly, the prediction by utonomy support ws medited by student perceptions of utonomy, the prediction by structure ws medited by student perceptions of competence, nd the effect of involvement ws medited by student perceptions of utonomy nd competence. The positive effects of techer utonomy support on student perceptions of need stisfction nd self-determintion re well documented in PE-bsed reserch (e.g., Ntoumnis, 2005; Stndge et l., 2005). However, our findings lso highlight the potentil importnce of promoting involvement nd structure, s these strtegies were relted to the stisfction of students psychologicl needs nd self-determintion. The reltionship between structure nd student selfdetermintion, nd the medition of this reltionship by student perceptions of competence need stisfction hs been rgued for in clssroom contexts (e.g., Connell & Wellborn, 1991), however, the present study offers the first empiricl testing of this hypothesis in the PE context. The significnt reltionship between involvement nd self-determintion, nd the medition effects of student perceptions of utonomy nd competence indicte tht techers, who provide emotionl support nd show interest to their students, my potentilly enhnce student perceptions of competence nd utonomy independently of providing utonomy support nd structure. Such increses, in turn my relte to dptive student motivtion. Similrly, Grolnick, Deci, nd Ryn (1997) rgue tht if resons for ctivity prticiption re to be vlued by children (i.e., to be fully internlized), they hve to be introduced by socilizing gent who is interpersonlly involved with the child. The finding tht ll three types of motivtionl strtegies predicted students perceptions of reltedness is not surprising. For exmple, cknowledging students negtive feeling during tsk (n utonomy-supportive behvior), giving them feedbck on how to complete tsk (n exmple of structure) nd sking them bout whether they re enjoying the tsk (n exmple of involvement) re ll likely to promote in the students 82