Cultural Models and Implicit Theories of Self and World: A View from (Cross-)Cultural Psychology!

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1 Cultural Models and Implicit Theories of Self and World: A View from (Cross-)Cultural Psychology Boris Mayer University of Bern Neena Gupta-Biener (Organizer) Workshop Tacit Knowledge in Intercultural Communication University of Konstanz, October 2013

2 Legacy of Cross-Cultural Psychology > Psychology as a discipline concerned with universals > Cross-cultural psychology acknowledged relevance of culture > Emulating the experimental paradigm, culture (nations) viewed as independent variable in quasiexperimental design è focus on cross-cultural differences in psychological variables on the background of universalistic assumptions > Peeling the onion called culture (Ype Poortinga) Analysis of Covariance with active cultural ingredients (values, norms etc., measured at individual level) explaining cultural differences in psychological phenomena (e.g., self-efficacy) > Many attempts to ensure comparability Analyses of construct and measurement equivalence, control of culture-specific response styles 2

3 A More Dynamic Approach: Culture as Implicit Theories > Culture not internalized in form of a highly general structure > Dynamic constructivist approach: Culture as domain specific knowledge structures/ implicit theories More or less accessible depending on current and chronic activation Bi- or multicultural individuals may possess conflicting implicit theories (that cannot guide cognition simultanously) > Frame switching Individual shifts between interpretive frames belonging to different cultural contexts depending on cues in social environment Bi- or multicultural individuals may possess conflicting implicit theories > Allows multicultural minds, but culture still seen as rather monolithic, knowledge structures as kind of software Hong, Morris, Chiu & Benet-Martinez (2000). American Psychologist 3

4 A More Dynamic Approach: Culture as Implicit Theories Hong (in press). The Dynamics of Multicultural Identities 4

5 Experimental Approach: Cultural Priming > Biculturals from Hong Kong/US primed with Chinese / American / neutral icons Suppose you are asked about the characteristics of American culture / Chinese culture / meteorology by someone who knows nothing about it. How would you describe it? Write ten statements to describe American culture. Before you start, we will show you some pictures related to American culture / Chinese culture / meteorology. These pictures may give you some ideas. However, you need not use, describe or even mention these pictures in your answer. Hong, Morris, Chiu & Benet-Martinez (2000). American Psychologist 5

6 Experimental Approach: Cultural Priming > Cross-cultural psychology: consistent differences with regard to interpretation of social behavior Western cultural contexts: Implicit theory that individuals are autonomous relative to group pressure è Tendency to attribute Behavior to internal dispositions (East) Asian cultural contexts: Implicit theory that individuals accommodate to greater autonomy of groups è Tendency to attribute behavior to external forces Knowledge structures of both kinds of attributions available in all context, but emphasis/salience different due to chronic activation > Nontransparant task for interpreting individual/group behavior Explaining a single fish s behavior in terms of 1) leading a group of fish 2) being chased by a group of fish Biculturals primed with Chinese icons chose/ described more external attributions (chased by group of fish) than those in the neutral and American condition Hong, Morris, Chiu & Benet-Martinez (2000). American Psychologist 6

7 A More Dynamic Approach: Culture as Implicit Theories > Who am I? Who are we? Knowledge structures alone stay liveless cultural programs Implicit theories have to be evaluated, integrated to form some (new) identity Hong (in press). The Dynamics of Multicultural Identities 7

8 A Broader Look at Implicit Theories > Implicit Theories of Self: Intelligence and personality Entity theory: Performance goals (validate self); when setbacks occur è tendency to accept self è primary control, or helplessness when NOT changeable Incremental theory: Learning goals (improve self); when setbacks occur è tendency to exert more effort to change self > Implicit Theories of the world Monolithic view: self and world as either changeable or unchangeable Complementary view: fixed self malleable world and vice versa > East Asian cultures: Tendency to individual self fits the world Individuals seen as malleable, adapting to social structure > Western cultures: Tendency to world accommodates individual self Social structure seen as changeable (by self) Dweck, Chiu & Hong (1995). Psychological Inquiry 8

9 Primary/Secondary Control Orientation > Primary Control: what used to be called Control changing the world in such a way that it is adapted to the self s needs; Self as agent, change in social and physical environment as outcome > Secondary Control people not always try to influence their social and physical environment, but often flexibly adapt to existing realitites positive conceptualization of seemingly dysfunctional behavior like passivity; used to be viewed as compensatory, until primary control is possible again emphasizes functionality of flexibility in a (Western) culture that prioritizes determination and autonomous behavior emphasizes the need to fit in with social realities > Cross-Cultural Comparison: stronger tendency to primary control in Western cultures and to secondary control in (East) Asian cultures Rothbaum, Weisz & Snyder (1982). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 9

10 Relation Between Implicit Theories and Control Orientation Rothbaum & Wang (in prep). The fit between self and world 10

11 Cross-Cultural Study China N = 100 (M = 50 & F = 50) Age M M = M F = Switzerland N = 33 (only females up to now) Age M F = USA N = 60 (M = 20 & F = 40) Age M M = M F = India N = 100 (M = 50 & F = 50) Age M M = M F = Wang, Mayer & Sinha (2013) 11

12 Scenarios for Primary/Secondary Control q 13 concrete situations with concrete behavioral options q Situations especially relevant for youths/students University / College Living together / Friendship Work Partnership q Behavioral options for primary vs. secondary control (Forced) distribution of percentages to response options prevents problems of (differential) aquiescence nevertheless allows differentiated response (e.g., equally strong tendencies) q For both response options additionally: percieved difficulty to carry out the respective behavior (Likert-scale) 12

13 Entity Theory Female Male > Culture F = 8.90, p <.001, eta 2 =.09 (USA = CH = China) > India > Gender F = 0.33, ns > Culture x Gender F = 0.35, ns I am a certain kind of person, and there is not much that can be done to really change that. Note: Ipsatized values with a constant added. 13

14 Fixed World (Domain Specific) Female Male > Culture F = 29.24, p <.001, eta 2 =.23 (USA = CH) < (China = India) > Gender F = 0.09, ns > Culture x Gender F = 3.70, p <.05, eta 2 =.03 In our society, divorce is something to be avoided under all circumstances. Note: Ipsatized values with a constant added. 14

15 Self-Monitoring Female Male > Culture F = 18.07, p <.001, eta 2 =.16 China > (USA = CH = India) > Gender F = 0.29, ns > Culture x Gender F = 1.74, ns In social situations, I tend to: 0 = Maintain behavior that is consistent with my personality. 1 = Modify my behavior to fit better into the situation 15

16 % Primary Control (across 13 scenarios) Female Male > Culture F = 11.69, p <.001, eta 2 =.12 China < CH, USA < India > Gender F = 4.13, p <.043, eta 2 =.02 > Culture x Gender F = 6.34, p =.002, eta 2 =

17 Difficulty Primary vs. Secondary Control (across 13 scenarios) Female Male > Culture F = 15.43, p <.001, eta 2 =.14 CH < (USA = India) < China > Gender F = 6.30, p =.013, eta 2 = > Culture x Gender F = 3.94, p =.021, eta 2 =

18 Correlations: Implicit Theories and Self-Monitoring > Entity Theory was uncorrelated with all other measures. Pearson r / beta Self-Monitoring Overall.22** Fixed World (domain-specific) USA.35 ** Switzerland.48 ** India.19 China.08 > Overall & USA, Switzerland: The more the social environment is seen as fixed, the more one is adapting one s behavior to the situation. > Interaction: Culture x Fixed World F = 2.11, p <.10 18

19 Implicit Theories, Self-Monitoring, and Scenarios Control Orientation Pearson r / beta Percent Primary Control Difficulty Primary Control Fixed World (domain-specific) Self-Monitoring Overall -.15*.21** USA Switzerland ** India China -.22 *.14 Overall.08.20** USA -.49 **.59 ** Switzerland -.35 *.18 India.24 *.05 China > DV: Percent Primary Control: Interaction: Culture x Fixed World F = 0.72, ns Interaction: Culture x Self-Monitoring, F = 7.51, p <.001 > DV: Difficulty Primary Control: Interaction: Culture x Fixed World F = 1.62, ns Interaction: Culture x Self-Monitoring, F = 4.73, p =

20 Three Family Models according to Family Change Theory (Kagitcibasi, 2007) > Family Model of Independence Emotional and material independence industrialized Western cultures, individualistic Autonomy & Separateness > Family Model of (Total) Interdependence Emotional and material interdependence traditional agrarian cultures, collectivistic Heteronomy & Relatedness > Family Model of Emotional Interdependence Continuing emotional interdependence Declining material interdependence Rising autonomy modernizing cultures with collectivistic background Autonomy & Relatedness 20

21 Family Models and Their Intergenerational Similarity in Germany, Turkey and India Mayer, Trommsdorff, Kagitcibasi, & Mishra (2012). Family Science 21

22 Family Models in Germany, Turkey and India Independence Emotional Interdependence Interdependence 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Mothers Adolescents Mothers Adolescents Mothers Adolescents Germany Turkey India Mayer, Trommsdorff, Kagitcibasi, & Mishra (2012). Family Science 22

23 Family Models in Germany, Turkey and India Mayer (2009). Adolescents Family Models

24 Adolescents Familism Across Cultures Mayer (2009). Adolescents Family Models

25 Adolescents Familism Across Individual-Level Family Model Patterns 100% 80% 60% 40% Interdependence Emot. Interdep. Independence 20% 0% Helping parents Meeting friends Mayer (2009). Adolescents Family Models Interaction Family Models Culture ns Effect of Family Models valid also within cultures

26 Family Change Theory (FCT): Review of Recent Cross-Cultural Studies > Only studies with explicit reference to testing FCT included: 8 studies > Studies conceptualize emotional/material interdependencies very differently > Studies overall offer some support for FCT, but a straightforward evaluation of the theory's empirical status remains difficult > Family model of emotional interdependence partly identified, most prevalent in urban areas of economically developing cultures with collectivist background > But: Cultures representing the family model of emotional interdependence were consistently lower in emotional interdependencies than cultures representing the family model of (total) interdependence > Global shift in direction of familial independence in both domains - material as weil as emotional but decline may be slower and possibly weaker for emotional interdependencies Mayer (2013) 26