The longer you ve been here I think the more they get moulded : Identity regulation, identification and resistance
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1 The longer you ve been here I think the more they get moulded : Identity regulation, identification and resistance Christine Coupland Nottingham University Business School Jubilee Campus Nottingham NG8 1BB E mail chris.coupland@nottingham.ac.uk abstract This paper examines, from within a social constructionist understanding of identity as something we do rather than something we have or are, how members of an organization may appropriate modes of identity regulation. Alvesson and Willmott, 2002 have examined identity regulation as a form of organizational control. The purpose of this paper is to examine empirical data, from a longitudinal study of graduate trainees, using the framework suggested by Alvesson and Willmott in order to explore how identity may be drawn on to both accommodate and resist managerial attempts at regulation. Davies and Harré (1990) proposed, in alignment with post-structurally influenced constructionists, that human beings are simultaneously produced by discourse and are manipulators of it. They further propose that there is scope for discretion within discursive practices as we adopt positions and assign them to others in talk. This positioning is not necessarily regarded as deliberate (Davies and Harré, 1990; Potter and Wetherell, 1987). However, once positioned there are sets of related concepts, 1
2 which may be drawn on. Although Harré (1989) paints the individual as a rulefollowing agent who learns, over time, to be more sophisticated in manufacturing accounts, according to the linguistic accounting rules of his or her culture, Billig (1996) has criticised this rule following theory as overlooking the argumentative aspects of social life. That is not to say we are not rule-following agents but we are also rule-breaking, rule-creating and rule-changing agents. Hence, managerially inspired (Alvesson and Willmott, 2002, p. 620) discourses surrounding an appropriate identity may provide resource for resistance. Other commentators have attempted to study communal processes of identity or identification in social interactions. For example, Bakhtin (1986) demonstrated how forms of communication enable some identities while constraining others. In addition, he talks of drawing on a repository, a mixed stew when communicating. This places in motion the utterance, which carries with it fragments from its diverse heritage, and gains significance from the context of its present use. Furthermore, Gergen (1999) suggests we draw on Bakhtin but place relationship at the centre of the production of meaning through considering the functional and relational embeddedness of the utterance. Thus re-thinking any identity as a set of communicative practices, that is more salient in some scenes than others. This shifts the focus from the individual to the scene (Carbaugh, 1996). Any scene, in this instance the work context, involves individuals playing some arrangement of selves over possible others, where the social and the cultural are assumed to be features of actual communication practices. Social identities can be seen as both a resource and an outcome of interactions, socially negotiated and culturally distinct. Who I am 2
3 depends partly on where I am, with whom I am and what I can ably do there. (Carbaugh, 1996:24). Identity regulation may be defined as the more or less intentional effects of social practices upon processes of identity construction and reconstruction (Alvesson and Willmott, 2002, p. 625). These include training and reward systems and their discursive mobilisation to effect control through member identification. However, rather than focus on organizational rhetoric as it emanates from its original source, its take up and re-interpretation by the organization members makes visible one level of interpretation. This moves the focus of analysis to members as active consumers and negotiators of organizationally available designated identities. These members reconstruct allegedly shared meanings, which operate as common sense understandings in the organizations to do the discursive business of identity work. This enables consideration to be given to the negotiated nature of such understandings. In keeping with Alvesson and Willmott (2002), I argue that these may function as mechanisms of control, which are fused with the identity work of the members. However, in addition to Alvesson and Willmott s claims that identity work is thus a medium and outcome of organizational control, the effectiveness of the mechanisms (ie. their potential to be taken up) is dependent upon identity work being carried out. That is, when member identification of some form takes place. This is not to suggest that identification represents a fixed state, rather a fluid, temporary, location from which the member, sometimes self-consciously, works with the control mechanisms and their implications for identity-definition at any point in interaction. 3
4 This, perhaps contrasts with much of the early work carried out in the area of organizational identification: based on attributes and cognitive measures (Dutton, Dukerich and Harquail, 1994; due to cognitive awareness (Tajfel, 1982) and perceived similarities between the member and the organization s values (Mael and Ashforth, 1995). Nevertheless, my findings add to those of other commentators who have established that identification is social, retrospective and grounded in identity construction (Weick, 1995); is a necessary process in order to function (Cheney, 1983), and is an increasingly important method of control (Alvesson and Willmott, 2002; Casey, 1995 and Kunda, 1992). Furthermore, my attention to language enables a focus on how the notion of we the organization may be articulated and thus investigated as a technique of proximity construction in talk. The notion that, in work organizations, individuals are defined and categorised is not new (e.g. Casey, 1995; Tajfel, 1978; 1981). However, the more or less willing compliance of individuals in this process has rarely been investigated. By adopting the perspective that individuals are resourceful in their accounts of themselves a more positive outlook is created. For this population of employees, both desirable and valuable to the organization, efforts to sustain employee commitment and loyalty may be heightened. However, in conditions of increased identity regulation individuals mobilize alternatives to the corporate voice which operate to deny identity control mechanisms relevance to the individual. Although identity work between members of an organization is crucial to the employment relationship, its visibility renders it susceptible to critique. 4
5 Using Alvesson and Willmott s (2002) framework I investigate the means by which identity is sustained and practised in the organization. To examine the process of identity regulation I develop the framework to illustrate how identities may be produced in interaction and their relationship to organizational identification. The framework consists of the following nine modes of regulation: 1 Defining the person 2 Defining a person by defining others 3 Providing a specific vocabulary of motives 4 Explicating morals and values 5 Knowledge and skills of what one is capable of knowing or doing frames who one is 6 Group categorization and affiliation 7 Hierarchical location 8 Establishing and clarifying a distinct set of rules of the game 9 Defining the context The persuasive argument for potential identity control through the nine modes proposed by Alvesson and Willmott also supports their relevance to the individual for identity resistance and accommodation. In the analysis section of the paper I consider how the participants account for and mobilise organizationally defined discourses in each of these modes. Within this mobilization there are opportunities for identification and resistance to the identity regulation work being attempted. For the practices to be of significance to the 5
6 regulation of identity in the workplace, they have to be given valence by the individual. Discourses may be readily interpreted as having currency in terms of being able to do discursive business with or through them. Conversely, they may be rejected as hype, or corporate propaganda, that promote the values of the organization, which may backfire in terms of engendering member identification (Kunda, 1992; Alvesson and Willmott, 2002). The data collection from which the extracts have been taken is a longitudinal study of graduate trainees accounts of their experiences as newcomers to a company. The participants were employed by one, well-known, U.K. high street, retail chain as graduate entrants on a training scheme. Twenty-one participants, six male and fifteen female, took part in the study over a two-year period. Using semi-structured interviews I met with the participants at approximately six-monthly intervals. Our conversations were recorded and transcribed verbatim. The method of analysis is an eclectic mix of discourse analysis drawing on discursive psychological and conversation analytic concepts and practices (Boden, 1994; Buttny, 1993; Gill, 1996; Potter and Wetherell, 1987; Silverman, 1998; Widdicombe, 1993). The main findings indicate that there are both counter-discourses and reflexive buyin from the participants to organizationally available discourses operating almost simultaneously. This suggests that for this population of employees there is some identity work being done in being able to articulate the company line. However, this articulation often appears to establish a particular position for the speaker from which to critique the alleged shared understanding. It may be that it is through this dual positioning of knowing compliance that resistant identification is established. It is 6
7 unclear to what extent this presents an opportunity for micro emancipation (Alvesson and Willmott, 1996; Alvesson and Willmott, 2002, p. 636). When progression and competition for scarce promotional resource operate as a framework for a reward system, explicit identification is not an optional route. Nevertheless, the evident resistance to corporate control mechanisms should lead us to consider to what extent these members of an organization have fragile identities and just how vulnerable they are to the discourses of identity regulation. References Alvesson, M. and Willmott, H. (1996) Making Sense of Management: A Critical Analysis. London: Sage. Alvesson, M. and Willmott, H. (2002) Identity Regulation as Organizational Control: Producing the Appropriate Individual. Journal of Management Studies, 39 (5), Bakhtin, M.M. (1986) Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. Austin: University of Texas Press. Billig, M. (1996) Arguing and Thinking: A Rhetorical Approach to Social Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Boden, D. (1994) The Business of Talk: Organizations in Action. Cambridge: Polity Press. Buttny, R. (1993) Social Accountability in Communication. London: Sage. Carbaugh, D. (1996) Situating Selves: The Communication of Social Identities in American Scenes. Albany: State University of New York. Casey, C. (1995) Work, Self and Society. London: Routledge. 7
8 Cheney, G. (1983) The rhetoric of identification and the study of organizational communication. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 69, Davies, B. and Harré, R. (1990) Positioning: The discursive production of selves. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 20 (1), Dutton, J.E., Dukerich, J.M. and Harquail, C.V. (1994) Organizational images and member identification. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39, Gergen, K.J. (1999) An Invitation to Social Construction. London: Sage. Gill, R (1996) Discourse Analysis: Practical Implementation. In J.E. Richardson (ed.) Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods. Leicester: British Psychological Society ( ). Harré, R. (1989) Language games and the texts of identity in J. Shotter and K.J. Gergen (eds.) Texts of Identity. London: Sage. Kunda, G. (1992) Engineering Culture. Control and Commitment in a High-Tech Corporation. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Mael, F.A. and Ashforth, B. (1995) Loyal from day one: Biodata, organizational identification and turnover among newcomers. Personnel Psychology, 48, Potter, J. and Wetherell, M. (1987) Discourse and Social Psychology: Beyond Attitudes and Behaviour. London: Sage Silverman, D. (1998) Harvey Sacks: Social Science and Conversation Analysis. Cambridge: Polity Press. Tajfel, H. (1978) Differentiation Between Social Groups: Studies in Social Psychology. London: Academic Press. Tajfel, H. (1981) Human Groups and Social Categories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tajfel, H. (1982) Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of 8
9 Psychology, 33, Weick, K. (1995) Sensemaking in Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Widdicombe, S. (1993) Autobiography and change: rhetoric and authenticity of Gothic style. In Burman, E. and Parker, I. (1993) Discourse Analytic Research, Repertoires and Readings of Texts in Action. London: Routledge (94-113). 9
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