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1 Learning is the (1) brain-based phenomenon that is a (2) relatively permanent change (3) in behavior that results from (4) experience, (5) reinforcement, or (6) observation. (1) brain-based (2) relatively permanent change (3) in behavior (4) that results from experience Classical Conditioning - Founded by Ivan Pavlov it is a process in which the E > 0, involves primarily visceral responses, we have little control of, establishes very quickly and extinguishes very slowly, and is seen in clinical problems like phobias. Precondition Phase US NS UR NR Pairing Phase US + NS UR Proof Phase NS... (5) reinforcement CS UR Or... CR Operant Conditioning - Founded by BF Skinner it involves a process in which the E < 0, involves primarily skeletal responses, we have much control of, establishes either and extinguishes either quickly or slowly (depending on the schedules of reinforcement), and is seen in many clinical situations. Stimulus SR... Response (6) or observation. Social Learning - Founded by Bandura, Rotter, and others it involves a process in which the organism learns by imitation or observation. The behavior or learning lays dormant until a later date. SL happens quickly and is involved in complex human learning such as language and motor skills. This approach is dangerously (for radical behaviorists) to cognitive psychology.

2 Classical Conditionin2 Ivan Pavlov (1904) developed Classical Conditioning. In classical conditioning (CC), the environment elicits or draws out the behavior of the organism. This learning occurs in three phases: Phase 1- Neutral Stimulus (NS) (bell) ~ No Response and Unconditioned (US) (food) Stimulus ~ Unconditioned (UCR) Response (salivating) Phase 2 - NS + US (paired in time & space ~ UCR Phase 3 - NS w/o US ~ UCR which in now the Now the Conditioned Conditioned response (CR) Stimulus (CS) Terms 1. Acquisition - Theprocess by which a conditionedresponseis establishedor strengthened. 2. Extinction - The dying out of the CR after repeated presentations of the CS without the UCS. 3. Spontaneous Recovery - The temporary return of the extinguished response after a delay. 4. Stimulus Generalization - The extension of a CR from the training stimulus to similar stimuli. 5. Stimulus Discrimination - Making different responses to different stimuli that have been followed by different outcomes. 6. Temporal Contiguity - Nearnessin time. 7. Contingency- The prediction of one stimulus from the presence of another. Practical Uses Phobias Advertising Habit Control

3 Acetate 49 (Figure 7-1) Classical and operant 1992West PublishingCompany

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5 Operant Conditionin1! E.L. Thorndike - The Law of Effect "Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur." Reinforcements - Are events that increase the future probability of the most recent response. Operant Reinforcement (OC) - The process of changing behavior by following a response with a reinforcement. In DC, the S's behavior determines an outcome and is affected by that outcome. In CC, the S's behavior has no effect on the outcome (the presentation of either CS or the UCS). CC usually involves visceral responses. OC usually involves skeletal responses. Terms Extinction will occur if responses stop producing reinforcements. Stimulus Generalization - The more similar a new stimulus is to the original reinforced stimulus, the more strongly the S' s is likely to respond. Discrimination - An individual who is reinforced for responding to one stimulus and not for responding to another stimulus will come to discriminate between them and will respond more vigorously to one than another. Discriminative stimulus - A stimulus that indicates which response is appropriate and inappropriate. Shaping - Is establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations. Chaining - Is a procedure in which reinforcing one behavior allows for the opportunity to engage in the next behavior. Punishments - Is an event that decreases the probability of a response. Avoidance learning - Occurs if the response leads to escape from or avoidance of a painful stimulus. The response is reinforced by the absence of the painful event.

6 Food pellet dispenser Water \ Light Screen \ Lever

7 E.L Thoradike -Tile Law of Effect "Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other thinp being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur." Reinforce.eatl response. - Are events that increase the future probability of the most recent Operant Reinforce..at (OC) - The process of changing behavior by following a response with a reinforcement. I" OC, tll~ S's bell.vlo, "~11IIlMS." DlllcD,.1IIUI1s IIJ/«*4 by DlllcolM. I" CC, tll~ S's belliivlo, ~J/~cI Oil t"~ 01lktHlle (tll~ JWG~IIIIIIloIIof ~itll~, CS 0' tll~ UCS). CC usually involves visceral responses. DC usually involves skeletal responses. Terms Esti_tioa will occur if responsesstopproducingreinfortements. Stimul.. Gea.raliutioD - The more similar a new stimulus is to the original reinforced stimulus, the more strongly the S' s is likely to respond. DiscrimiaatioD - An individual who is reinforced for responding to one stimulus and not for respondingto anotherstimuluswill cometo discriminatebetweenthem and will respondmorevigorouslyto one than another. Discriminative atimul.. - A stimulus that indicates which response is appropriate and inappropriate. Slaaping - Is establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations. ChaiDing - Is a procedure in which reinforcing one behavior allows for the opportunity to engage in the next behavior. PunishmeDti - Is an event that decreases the probability of a response. AvoidaDce IearDing - Occurs if the response leads to escape from or avoidance of a painful stimulus. The response is reinforced by the absence of the painful event.

8 Premack Principle - The opportunity to engage in frequent behavior (eating) will be a reinforcer for any less-frequent behavior (lever pressing). Schedules of Reinforcement - rules or procedures for delivering a reinforcement. Continuous vs. Intermittent Fixed-ratio schedule - rapid & steady, may be pausing. Variable-ratio schedule - steady rate of response. Fixed-interval schedule - response followed by a delay. Variable-interval- slow, steady rate. Extinction varies with schedule. Resistance to extinction {Continous > Variable} Practical Uses Animal training Work settings Clinical settings - token economies, habit control

9 T#69 Reinforcement / Positive reinforcers (food, water, money, status, praise, love) Strengthen. behaviors that n - u - - result in their occurrence Negative reinforcers (electric shock, intense heat, failure, rejection, criticism) Strengthen behaviors that result in their removal or avoidance

10 The Effects of Reinforcement Schedules on Acquisition T#7) Fixed ratio Variable ratio Fixed interval Variable interval 600 U) CD U) C o Co U) CD ~ -..., ca :JE:J 200 o Q) > t/).+:; Q) ca t/) - c: ::s 0 E Q. ::s t/) CJ! / o Time (minutes) From Operant Learning: Procedures for Changing Behavior, by J. L. Williams by Wadvvorth Publishing Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Brooks, Cole Publishing Company,. Monterey,California. Responses 32 per minute Introductory P~vchologyII 3 by HarperCollinsColiegePublishers

11 T-89 What event follows the response? What happens to the response? Response İncreases Response decreases Stimulus presented Positive reinforcement For example: Completion of homework assignments increases when followed by praise. Positive punishment For example: Nail biting decreases when followed by the taste of a bitter substance painted on the nails. Stimulus removed Negative reinforcement For example: Use of aspirin increases when followed by reduction of headache pain. Negative punishment For example: Parkingin a "no parking" zone decreases when followed by lossof money (a fine). Types of Reinforcement and 1996 HarperCollinsCollegePublishers

12 The Ef.fects of Reinforcement Schedutes OllilExtiniGtioln 'F#72 CD (I) c: o Q. (I) CD.. 'too CD... m a: Fixed schedule (3) (2) CRF (1) Introductory Psychology II : J by HarperCollinsCollegePublishers Trials

13 Social Learning Theory - Vicarious Learning (Bandura) Learning results from observing the behaviors of others and from imagining the consequences of our own behavior. Modeling and Imitation - LanguageAcquisition "Bobo Doll research" Self-efficacy - The perception of one's own ability to perform a task successfully. Role of self-efficacy in health and education. Conditioned Taste Aversion

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