PSYC 2301 CORE LEARNING OBJECTIVES AND KEY TERMS OpenStax Psychology (For See Appendix go to page 9 in this handbook.)

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1 PSYC 2301 CORE LEARNING OBJECTIVES AND KEY TERMS OpenStax Psychology (For See Appendix go to page 9 in this handbook.) CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 1. Define psychology. Psychology 6 2. Describe the major schools of thought and theoretical perspectives in psychology. Behaviorism Psychoanalysis Humanistic psychology Cognitive psychology Evolutionary psychology Biological psychology Multicultural (Sociocultural) psychology CHAPTER 2: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 1. Define the scientific method and explain how it is used in psychology. 2. Define and explain the differences between the various descriptive research methods. 3. Define representative sample and explain why it is important. Population Sample 4. Explain the differences between cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs. 5. Describe the experimental method, state its advantages and disadvantages, and distinguish between independent and dependent variables. Scientific method 38 Naturalistic observation Structured (Laboratory) observation Case study Survey Correlation Correlation coefficient Representative sample Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design Experimental method Causal hypothesis Independent variable Dependent variable Experimental group Control group Random assignment 6. Explain the rationale behind placebo-control experiments. Placebo effect Placebo Experimenter bias 7. Outline the ethical standards that psychological researchers must follow. Double-blind procedure ; 239 (Chapter 7)

2 CHAPTER 3: BIOPSYCHOLOGY 1. Describe various methods for studying the brain and its Electroencephalogram (EEG) functions. CT scan (computerized axial tomography) MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) PET scan (positron emission tomography) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) 2. Identify the basic components of the neuron. Neuron Cell body Dendrites Axon 3. Identify the basic components of the synapse. Synaptic gap Synapse Presynaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron 4. Define the action potential and explain the processes that Resting potential occur when a neuron is activated. 5. Identify the major neurotransmitters and explain how neurotransmitters affect behavior. 6. Explain the difference between the central and the peripheral nervous systems. 7. Explain the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. 8. Identify the medulla, pons and cerebellum, and describe their functions. Action potential Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Dopamine Norepinephrine Serotonin Endorphins Peripheral nervous system Central nervous system Autonomic nervous system Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system Brain stem Medulla Pons Cerebellum 9. List the processes regulated by the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus Describe the limbic system, and list the responses and behaviors affected by it. 11. Describe the components of the cerebrum and their functions. Limbic system Amygdala Hippocampus Cerebrum Cerebral hemispheres Corpus callosum Cerebral cortex 12. Explain the functions of the frontal lobes. Association areas Frontal lobes Motor cortex Broca s area Broca s aphasia ; Explain plasticity. Plasticity Appendix A 14. Define the endocrine system and explain the influence of the pituitary and adrenal glands on behavior. Endocrine system Hormones Pituitary gland Adrenal glands 15. Define behavioral (behavior) genetics. Behavioral (behavior) genetics

3 CHAPTER 4: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 1. Describe the physical and psychological effects of meditation Meditation CHAPTER 5: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION None None None CHAPTER 6: LEARNING 1. Define and identify examples of learning. Learning Explain the process through which classical conditioning modifies an organism s responses to stimuli. Classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Neutral stimulus Extinction (in classical conditioning) Spontaneous recovery (Stimulus) generalization (Stimulus) discrimination Summarize the contributions of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner to the study of learning. 4. Explain the process through which operant conditioning modifies an organism s responses to stimuli. Operant conditioning Reinforcer Extinction (in operant conditioning) Generalization Discriminative stimulus Reinforcement Primary reinforcer Secondary reinforcer Define shaping. Shaping Successive approximations 6. Explain the difference between positive and negative reinforcement. 7. Define punishment and summarize the factors that influence its effectiveness. Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Positive punishment Negative punishment Explain the applications of operant conditioning theory. Behavior modification Token economy Biofeedback ; 614 (Chap. 16); 523 (Chap. 14) 9. Define observational learning. Observational learning Describe the function of the mirror neuron system (MNS). Mirror neuron system (MNS) 207 3

4 CHAPTER 7: THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE 1. Explain the roles of schemas (schemata) in memory. Schema Define representative sample and explain why it is important. Representative sample 239 CHAPTER 8: MEMORY 1. Explain the information-processing approach to memory. Information processing system 254 (Atkinson-Shiffrin model) Encoding Storage Retrieval 2. Describe the function and characteristics of short-term Short-term memory memory. Working memory 3. Describe the characteristics of long-term memory. Long-term memory Episodic memory Semantic memory Declarative memory (explicit memory) Nondeclarative memory (implicit memory) Describe several techniques for improving memory. Elaborative rehearsal Mnemonics Organization Overlearning Massed practice Spaced (distributed) practice Self-references Visual imaginary 5. Explain the differences between recall, free recall, cued recall, and recognition measures of memory. Recall Free recall Cued recall (retrieval cue) Recognition ; Appendix B ; Explain the roles of schemas (schemata) in memory. Schema 221 (Chap. 7) 7. Explain the reasons for forgetting. Encoding failure Decay theory ; Appendix C Interference Motivated forgetting Retrieval failure Displacement 8. Describe the process of reconstructive memory and how it 267 affects the accuracy of eyewitness memories. 9. Describe the symptoms, proposed causes of, and preventive measures for Alzheimer s disease. Alzheimer s disease Dementia Appendix D 4

5 CHAPTER 9: LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT 1. Describe the process of cognitive development according to Schemes (schemata) Piaget. Assimilation 2. Summarize the characteristics of Piaget s four stages of cognitive development. Accommodation Sensorimotor stage Object permanence Preoperational stage Egocentrism Concrete operations stage Conservation Formal operations stage 3. Explain Kohlberg s levels and stages of moral development. Preconventional level and stages Conventional level and stages Postconventional level and stages Summarize the characteristics of Erikson s eight stages of psychosocial development. 5. Explain the differences between cross- sectional and longitudinal research designs. 6. List the characteristics of the three stages of prenatal development. 7. Explain the effects of teratogens and other negative factors on prenatal development. 8. Describe the relationship between contact comfort and attachment. 9. Explain the differences between the secure, anxiousambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized patterns of attachment. 10. Explain the effects of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting styles on children s development. 11. Describe the distinctions among the terms sex, gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation. 12. Outline the proposed causes of sexual orientation and gender identity. 13. Explain the differences among the cognitivedevelopmental, social-cognitive, and gender schema theory explanations of gender role development. Trust/mistrust Autonomy/shame & doubt Initiative/guilt Industry/inferiority Identity/role confusion Intimacy/isolation Generativity/stagnation Ego integrity/despair Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design Zygote Period of the zygote (germinal stage) Period of the embryo Period of the fetus Teratogen Fetal alcohol syndrome Attachment Separation anxiety Stranger anxiety Secure attachment Avoidant attachment Resistant attachment Disorganized/disoriented attachment Authoritarian parents Authoritative parents Permissive parents Sex Gender Gender identity Sexual orientation Gender constancy Gender schema (Chap. 2) ; 308; Appendix E ; 347 (Chap. 10); Appendix F (Chap. 10) Appendix G 5

6 CHAPTER 10: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION 1. Explain Maslow s hierarchy of needs Hierarchy of needs Outline the proposed causes of sexual orientation and gender identity. 3. Describe the distinctions among the terms sex, gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation. Sex Gender Gender identity Sexual orientation ; Appendix F CHAPTER 11: PERSONALITY Learning Objective Key Terms Pages 1. Define personality. Personality Describe the processes that take place in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind. Conscious Preconscious 369; Appendix H 3. Define and identify the functions of the id, ego, and superego. Id Ego 4. Explain the purpose of defense mechanisms in Freud s theory. 5. Summarize the basic assumptions associated with Freud s psychosexual stages. Unconscious Superego Defense mechanism Repression Projection Denial Regression Reaction formation Displacement Psychosexual stages Explain the views of humanistic theorists regarding Humanistic psychology personality. 7. Explain the views of Abraham Maslow on self- Self-actualization 385 actualization and its role in personality functioning. 8. Explain the Big Five personality traits. Traits Big Five (five-factor model) 387; Explain Bandura s social-cognitive view of personality. Social cognitive theory Reciprocal determinism Self-efficacy Describe the evidence for and against the view that personality is inherited. 11. Explain the differences between objective (self-report inventory) and projective personality test. Self-report inventory Projective test

7 CHAPTER 12: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY None None CHAPTER 13: INDUSTRIAL-ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY None None CHAPTER 14: STRESS, LIFESTYLE, AND HEALTH 1. Explain the difference between stress and stressors. Stress Stressors Explain the purpose and structure of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS.) Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) Describe the features of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Post-traumatic stress disorder Describe the impact of daily hassles on stress and Hassles health. 5. Describe the effects of stress on the immune system. Biopsychosocial model Health psychology Psychoneuroimmunology 24 (Chap. 1); Describe the stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). 7. Explain the differences between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. General Adaptation syndrome (GAS) Alarm stage Resistance stage Exhaustion stage Problem-focused coping Emotion-focused coping Define positive psychology and explain how it differs from other perspectives. Positive psychology List the factors that influence individual capacity for resisting the effects of stress. Resilience (risk/resilience model) Hardiness Social support ; Appendix I 7

8 CHAPTER 15: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 1. List the criteria for abnormal behavior. Maladaptive/dysfunctional behaviors Deviation from social/cultural norms Personal distress Describe the purpose, organization, and content of the DSM Define and describe the group of disorders called anxiety disorders. DSM Agoraphobia Panic disorder Generalized anxiety disorder Social anxiety disorder Specific phobias Describe the features of obsessive-compulsive disorders. Obsessive-compulsive disorders Describe the features of major depression. Major depressive disorder Summarize the features of bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder Mania (manic episode) Summarize the risk factors for suicide Describe the features of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia List the possible causes of schizophrenia Describe the characteristics of dissociative identity Dissociative identity disorder (DID) disorder. 11. Summarize the features of the personality disorders. Personality disorders Paranoid personality Narcissistic personality Borderline personality Antisocial personality CHAPTER 16: THERAPY AND TREATMENT 1. Explain the difference between a psychologist and a Psychologist 28 (Chap. 1) psychiatrist. Psychiatrist 2. Summarize the various approaches to therapy. Psychoanalysis Person-centered (client- centered) therapy Behavior therapy Cognitive therapy Biomedical therapy ; 614; Explain the difference between cognitive and behavioral therapy. Cognitive-behavioral therapy

9 APPENDIX A: Plasticity The somewhat limited ability of the brain to repair itself is called neural plasticity. Just as you can change a piece of plastic by melting it and molding it into a new form, neurons in your brain can sometimes change their structure, by growing new dendrites, axon terminals, and synapses. This may occur when another neuron dies, partially taking over its function, or due to a change in the environment. APPENDIX B: Methods of Improving Memory Mnemonics Definition o A verbal tool such as a pattern of letters, ideas, or associations that assists in remembering something Examples o Rhymes such as When two vowels go walking, the first one does the talking. o Method of loci: memory aid that can help you recall lists of items by associating each item with a location. For example, you might recite the definition of the key term plasticity while imagining you are in your bedroom. To recall the definition while taking an exam, you think of your bedroom. o Acronyms: memory aid that uses the first letter of each item you need to remember to form a word or phrase. For example, HOMES is an acronym that can help you remember the names of the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). Study Strategies These strategies are more helpful than mnemonics for remembering complex information such as that found in most textbooks. Organization: classification strategies such as o Alphabetical order o Historical sequence o Associations of concepts, terms, events, etc., with major figures in a field; for example, associating the term psychoanalysis with Freud and behaviorism with Watson Overlearning: a highly effective study strategy that involves continuing to rehearse information after you can easily recall it Spaced practice: short study sessions; the opposite is massed practice or continuous study for a long period of time o Spaced practice is more effective than massed practice which often leads to fatigue, a state that undermines memory. Recitation: stating recalled information aloud o This strategy is most effective in a spaced practiced format in which you study a brief amount of material and then attempt to recite it. You then check the accuracy of your recitation, make corrections, and move on to another brief chunk of material. APPENDIX C: Forgetting Displacement in Sensory and Short Term Memories Sensory memory and short term memory both have space limitations. When you fill up either of those, any new information will lead to displacement the bumping out of the earlier information. Think of it this way: If you have a room with seven chairs, if an eighth person wants to sit down, one of the original seven will need to get up and leave. Motivated forgetting People can forget because they are motivated to forget. This can be voluntary or involuntary. This is when a 9

10 memory is so psychologically painful you are motivated not to remember it. If you purposely do it, such as telling yourself "I don't want to think about how the Oilers never brought a championship to Houston. I will think about the Texans, instead" it is called suppression. If it happens involuntarily, possibly after a traumatic event, it is known as repression. Retrieval failure Once information is in your Long Term Memory, it can neither be lost due to decay nor displacement. If you cannot remember it, you have essentially lost it (at least temporarily). In other words, you have failed to retrieve it when you needed it retrieval failure. APPENDIX D: Dementia and Alzheimer s Disease As we age, the possibility of developing some type of senile dementia increases. Dementia is caused by the death of neurons in the brain, especially in limbic system areas devoted to memory. This death is not natural. (It is a myth that we lose one thousand neurons every day of our lives!) This death can be caused by a blockage of blood to an area of the brain or the bursting of a blood vessel, commonly referred to as a "stroke." The most common form of senile dementia is Alzheimer's disease, named after the neurologist, Alois Alzheimer, who first identified its symptoms around This disease is caused by the death of neurons primarily in the limbic system's hippocampus and amygdala. We aren't sure why this happens, (both genetics and stress have been implicated) but the effects generally follow the same pattern. In the early stages, the individual loses the ability to transfer information from Short Term Memory to Long Term Memory. In other words, they can remember something for 10 to 30 seconds, but then it is gone. They can remember what happened before the onset of the disease, however. But taking a recent event and putting it into permanent memory for later retrieval becomes increasingly difficult. In the moderate stages, the person also begins losing old memories. As neurons in the frontal lobes die, they have difficulty initiating any activities and may become very passive. In the final stages, they lose the ability to take care of themselves. They may even die of the disease, but usually the person dies of other causes first. APPENDIX E: Separation Anxiety Separation anxiety in children is a developmental stage in which the child is anxious when separated from the primary caregiver (usually the mother). Causes As infants grow, their emotions and reactions to the world around them seem to occur in a predictable order. Before 8 months, infants are so new to the world that they lack a sense of what is normal and safe and what may be dangerous. As a result, new settings or people seem to not frighten them. From 8 to 14 months, children often become frightened when they meet new people or visit new places. They recognize their parents as familiar and safe. When separated from their parents, they feel threatened and unsafe. Separation anxiety is a normal stage as a child grows and develops. It helped keep our ancestors alive and helps children learn how to master the world around them. It usually ends when the child is around 2 years old. At this age, toddlers begin to understand that parents may be out of sight now, but will return later. [ APPENDIX F: Sex, Gender, Gender Identity, Sexual Orientation sex o physiological, chromosomal status of being male or female o often used by psychologists and others who study this aspect of human experience gender o psychological and social variables associated with sex gender identity 10

11 o the psychological experience of feeling male or female o Most boys grow up with a masculine gender identity that helps them to be comfortable with the behaviors that their cultures regard as acceptable for males. Likewise, o Most girls develop a feminine gender identity that is consistent with behaviors in the cultures in which they are raised. sexual orientation o the direction of an individual s sexual attraction, erotic feelings, and sexual activity o In heterosexuals, the human sexual response is oriented toward members of the opposite sex. o In homosexuals, attraction is directed toward those of the same sex; and o In bisexuals, attraction is directed toward members of both sexes. APPENDIX G: Theories of Gender Role Development Biological view o Says that genes and prenatal sex hormones have an important influence on gender role development o Collaer and Hines (1995) found that these hormones have a reasonably strong influence on children's play behavior. o Prenatal androgens are also known to affect brain development and functioning in humans. Social learning theory o Says that environmental influences are more important than biological forces in explaining gender role development. o Children are usually reinforced for imitating behaviors considered appropriate for their gender. o Imitation and reinforcement probably play some part in gender role development, but they do not provide a full explanation of this phenomenon. Cognitive developmental theory o Says that an understanding of gender is a prerequisite to gender role development. o Proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg. o Says that children go through a series of stages in acquiring the concept of gender. 2 and 3: children acquire gender identity-their sense of being a male or a female. 4 and 5: children acquire the concept of gender stability-awareness that boys are boys and girls are girls for a lifetime. 6 and 8: children understand gender constancy-that gender does not change regardless of the activities people engage in or the clothes they wear. o This theory fails to explain why many gender-appropriate behaviors and preferences are observed in children as young as age 2 or 3, long before gender constancy is acquired. Gender-schema theory o Proposed by Sandra Bem. o Says that young children are motivated to behave in a way consistent with gender-based standards and stereotypes of the culture and that children begin to use gender as a way to organize and process information. o But gender-schema theory holds that this process occurs earlier, when gender identity rather than gender constancy is attained. APPENDIX H: Preconscious Freud concluded that all of us have deep within our personalities an unconscious. This large region is the storehouse of our early childhood memories and events too painful for us to remember. Therefore, we repress them. They are not accessible under normal circumstances, but they still motivate us to behave and think in certain ways. What we can think about right now, our conscious, may only be distortions of our true memories. In between, is the preconscious. Memories that you are not thinking of right now, but you can bring into your conscious level. Think of the conscious level as your Short Term Memory, your preconscious as your Long Term 11

12 Memory, and the unconscious as below the LTM. [See Figure 2.6b on page 41] APPENDIX I: Factors that Promote Resilience Coping o Problem-focused coping is accomplished by minimizing or eliminating a stressor. o Emotion-focused coping is accomplished by managing emotional responses to a stressor. o Proactive coping is accomplished by taking actions that minimize or eliminate a future stressor. Optimism o Expecting positive, desirable outcomes o Hardiness o Belief that people have some degree of control over what happens to them o Belief that stressors are opportunities for developing the ability to deal with challenges o Commitment to occupational and personal pursuits and personal growth Religious faith o Involvement in a community o Development of habits the lead to positive health outcomes o Management of emotions Social support o Physical and emotional support and encouragement from family and others o Includes both perceived and actual support Perceived control o View that one has the ability to control and cope with stressors 12

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