The Relationship Among Perceived Coaching Behaviors, Perceptions of Ability, and Motivation in Competitive Age-Group Swimmers

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1 JOURNAL OF SPORT & EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY, 1992, 14, The Relationship Among Perceived Coaching Behaviors, Perceptions of Ability, and Motivation in Competitive Age-Group Swimmers S. Jill Black and Maureen R. Weiss University of Oregon Based on Harter's competence motivation theory, this study examined the relationships between perceived coaching behaviors and (a) perceptions of ability and (b) motivation in competitive age-group swimmers. Male and female athletes (N=312) assessed their coaches' behaviors and their own ability and motivation using self-report measures. Multivariate analyses indicated that significant relationships were found for males, females, year-olds, and year-olds. Variables contributing most importantly to the relationships differed depending upon gender and age group. In general, coaches who were perceived as giving more frequent information following desirable performances, and more frequent encouragement combined with information following undesirable performances, were associated with athletes who perceived higher levels of success, competence, enjoyment, and preference for optimally challenging activities. These results indicate that young athletes' self-perceptions and motivation are significantly related to the quantity and quality of coaching feedback they receive for performance successes and errors. Key words: coaching behaviors, motivation, perceived competence, youth sport There are only two powers in the world, the sword and the spirit. In the long run the sword will always be conquered by the spirit. (Napoleon, cited in Carron, 1984, p. 2) As we interpret Napoleon's words, the "sword" and the "spirit" represent the body and the mind, respectively. From a sport perspective, coaches and athletes define spirit as the will to win. Sport psychologists refer to spirit as motivation or, more specifically, intrinsic motivation: the inner desire to make This study was based on a master's thesis conducted by S.J. Black under the direction of M.R. Weiss. M.R. Weiss is with the Department of Exercise and Movement Science at the University of Oregon, Eugene, OR

2 3 10 / Black and Weiss things happen. For example, on any given morning, before the sun comes up, swimmers can be found methodically churning the water, lap after lap. Some swimmers will choose to slack off; others will choose to gut out the entire workout. Why? One plausible explanation is motivation. Over the last 20 years, numerous studies have sought to uncover why individuals participate in sport, what factors sustain this involvement, and why individuals drop one sport for another or withdraw altogether (Gould & Petlichkoff, 1988; Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989). In general, consistent reasons for remaining involved in sport have included improving skills, having fun, being with friends, experiencing excitement, increasing competence, and developing physical fitness. These reasons have been similar across age, gender, and sport type. For example, in studies of swimmers (Gould, Feltz, & Weiss, 1985) and gymnasts (Klint & Weiss, 1986), the major motives disclosed were fun, skill improvement, team atmosphere, and challenge. A topic of increasing concern has been attrition from sport involvement. Descriptive studies have shown that reasons such as conflicts of interest, lack of playing time, lack of success or skill improvement, competitive stress, dislike of the coach, boredom, and injury drive kids to other sport programs or out of sport completely (Gould & Petlichkoff, 1988; Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989). These studies examining why athletes participate and why they drop out have enhanced our understanding of motivation. The study of participation motivation has evolved slowly into an area in need of more theoretical investigation (Weiss & Chaurneton, 1992). Theory-based studies will facilitate the explanation and prediction, not just description, of athletic behaviors. Several theories have been identified as potential candidates for understanding adherence to sport programs. One theory that is both appealing and suitable for the sport domain is Harter's (1978, a) competence motivation theory. According to this theory, individuals who perceive themselves as competent in an activity or situation will be more likely to enjoy and sustain their involvement in that activity or seek similar situations. For example, Harter's theory predicts that individuals who receive modeling of approval and positive reinforcement for independent mastery attempts will gradually internalize a selfreward system and develop a mastery goal orientation. Further, through successful completion of optimal challenges, internal perceptions of control and perceived competence will be increased, and intrinsic pleasure will be enhanced. Finally, greater competence motivation will result, and the individual will seek other optimally challenging tasks. Several studies conducted in the physical domain have provided support for competence motivation theory (see Weiss, 1987; Weiss & Chaumeton, 1992). A central construct in Harter's (1978, 1981a) competence motivation theory is the influence of significant others on perceived competence, affect, and motivation. The only study to examine this relationship within Harter's theoretical framework was conducted by Horn (1985). Horn investigated the relationship between coaching behaviors and self-perceptions of competence and control in female junior high school softball players. Coaches' behaviors were found to be predictive of changes in perceived physical competence above and beyond skill improvement. Specifically, criticism was associated with higher levels of perceived competence, and positive reinforcement was associated with lower levels of perceived competence. Although these results appear to be in the opposite

3 Perceived Coaching Behaviors / direction than predicted, Horn suggested that a critical element of the coaches' feedback was its contingency to performance. She argued that positive reinforcement was not always given contingent to performance, but rather given randomly or used as encouragement. Criticism, on the other hand, was contingent to performance errors and was often combined with valuable information in the form of instruction on how to improve. Beyond this one study, however, the influence of significant others, specifically coaches, on self-perceptions and motivation in the physical domain remains unexamined from a theoretical perspective. Research investigating the influence of coaching behaviors in youth sport has also been conducted by Smith and Smoll and their associates (Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1978, 1979; Smith, Zane, Smoll, & Coppel, 1983). Results revealed that more frequent use of technical instruction, positive reinforcement, and mistakecontingent encouragement was positively related to attitudes toward baseball and self-esteem in young athletes. The study by Horn (1985) and those by Smith and Smoll focused on the measurement of observed coaching behaviors and the relationship between these behaviors and psychological development in young athletes. Not only are coaches' actual or observed behaviors important for understanding motivational effects, but athletes' subjective experiences or perceptions of coaching behaviors are paramount as well (Horn, 1987; Smoll & Smith, 1989). Several studies have shown that athletes' perceptions of their coaches' styles and interactions are strongly related to motivational factors (Chelladurai, 1984; Weiss & Friedrichs, 1986; Westre & Weiss, 1991). For example, Weiss and Friedrichs found that perceptions of coaches as engaging in more frequent rewarding and social-support behaviors and as having a democratic coaching style were related to higher satisfaction levels in athletes. Despite the insightful findings from these previous studies of coaching behaviors, relatively little research has been conducted concerning the influence of the coach on the self-perceptions and motivation of sport participants. This is surprising because numerous publications highlight the central role that the coach occupies in athletes' lives (e.g., Gould, 1988; Martens, 1990). However, little is known from a systematic, empirical perspective about the influences coaches exert on athletes' psychological development. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the relationships among perceived coaching behaviors, perceptions of ability, and motivation in competitive age-group swimmers. Harter's (1978,198 la) competence motivation theory was adopted as a framework for studying these relationships by examining the links among the influence of significant others, self-perceptions, and motivation. Specifically, this study was designed to determine which perceived coaching behaviors (praise, instruction, and/or criticism) are related to certain motivational indicators such as perceived competence, enjoyment, and effort in competitive swimmers. Based on predictions from Harter's (1978, 1981a) competence motivation theory and related coaching-behavior research (Horn, 1985; Smith et al., 1978, 1979; Smith et al., 1983), the following hypotheses were formulated: (a) athletes who perceive that their coach gives more frequent praise, information, or praise combined with information following desirable performances will score higher on perceptions of success, swimming competence, enjoyment, effort, choice, and preference for optimal challenge and will score lower on perceived pressure, and (b) athletes who perceive that their coach gives more frequent general encouragement,

4 3 12 / Black and Weiss corrective information, or encouragement combined with corrective information following undesirable performances will score higher on perceptions of success, swimming competence, enjoyment, effort, choice, and preference for optimal challenge and will score lower on perceived pressure. Subjects and Design Method Competitive swimmers (N=312), representing 11 United States Swimming (USS) registered teams, served as the subjects for this study. USS is the governing body for competitive swimming in the United States. Male (n=144) and female (n=168) athletes ranged in age from 10 to 18 yrs (M=12.8, SD=2.4), represented competitive swimming levels from novice (1) to junior national (7) (M=4.1, SD= 1.6), and had competed for a USS registered team for 1 to 13 yrs (M=4.1, SD= 2.7). In order to examine age-related differences, athletes were divided into three age groups: yrs (n=121), yrs (n=108), and yrs (n=83). The age categories were based on theoretical and empirical findings of cognitive-developmental differences in the self-assessment process for children and adolescents (Harter, 1981a; Horn & Hasbrook, 1986, 1987). Generally, the age categories characterized swimmers at the elementary, middle, and high school levels. A correlational, multivariate design was employed to determine the relationships among perceived coaching behaviors, self-perception, and motivation variables. Predictor variables consisted of perceived coaching behaviors that were represented by 10 categories of coaching responses to swimmers' desirable and undesirable performances. Criterion variables consisted of self-perception and motivation indicators: perceived swimming competence, perceived success, enjoyment, choice, effort, pressure, and preference for challenge. Measures Background Information. Swimmers were asked to respond to four questions concerning demographic information on age, sex, ability level, and years of competition with a USS registered team. Perceived Coaching Behaviors. The Coaching Behavior Assessment Scale (Smith et al., 1979) was modified by Horn and Glenn (1988) to measure athletes' perceived and preferred coaching behaviors. This measure was modified for the present study by expanding the number of categories and the number of items per category. The Perceived Coaching Behavior Scale in this study included 10 categories of coaching behaviors in response to desirable and undesirable performances. Specifically, 4 categories represented behavioral responses to swimmers' successes (praise only, no response, praise combined with information about the performance, and information only), and 6 categories represented behavioral responses to swimmers' performance errors (encouragement only, no response, criticism, corrective information about the performance, encouragement combined with corrective information, and criticism combined with corrective information).

5 Perceived Coaching Behaviors / 3 13 The scale developed by Horn and Glenn (1988) included 8 categories, with one question for each category. Based on the coaching behavior literature and on the coaching experience of the present investigators, 2 additional categories were created: information only, in response to desirable performances; and encouragement combined with corrective information, in response to undesirable performances. In order to increase measurement reliability of the scale (Carmines & Zeller, 1979; Horn, personal communication, November 1990), each of the 10 categories was represented by three items. Consequently, 30 items were generated and reviewed by 10 independent researchers and coaches for content appropriateness, face validity, and grammatical structure. Based on feedback from the reviewers, minor changes were made in the wording of particular items. Swimmers were asked to indicate the frequency with which their coaches displayed the aforementioned behaviors. They responded to the 30 items by rating each item on a Likert scale from always (5) to never (1). An open-ended question was included to determine whether responses were based on practices, swim meets, or both. The majority of athletes indicated that their answers were based on both practices and swim meets. Self-Perceptions of Ability. Two measures were administered to tap subjects' perceptions of ability: perceived swimming competence and perceptions of swimming success. Perceived swimming competence was measured using a sportspecific modification of the athletic competence subscale from Harter's (1985) Self-Perception Profile for Children. This measure included six items in a structured-alternative format. First, subjects decided which of two statements they were more like; then they were asked to indicate whether the chosen statement was "sort of" or "really" true for them. Items were scored from low perceived competence (1) to high perceived competence (4). Several studies have demonstrated acceptable validity and reliability for the athletic competence subscale and the sport-specific modifications for children and adolescents (see Weiss & Chaumeton, 1992). Perceptions of swimming success were assessed through two questions: How good would you rate your swimming performance so far this season? and How successful have you been in swimming this season? Items were scored on a 5-point Likert scale that ranged from very good (or very successful) (5) to not good at all (or not successful at all) (I). Motivation. Two measures were used to assess aspects of motivation: the challenge motivation subscale of the Motivational Orientation in Sport Scale (Weiss, Bredemeier, & Shewchuk, 1985) and the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (McAuley, Duncan, & Tammen, 1989; Ryan, 1982). An individual's preference for optimally challenging activities is an influential factor in determining intrinsic motivation (Harter, 1981a; Weiss et al., 1985). Harter (1981b) developed the Intrinsic/Extrinsic Scale to assess five dimensions of intrinsic/extrinsic motivation: challenge, curiosity, independent mastery, judgment, and criteria. Acceptable validity and reliability in the academic setting have been reported by Harter (1981b). Weiss et al. (1985) modified Harter's measures of intrinsic motivation for the physical domain and found a factor structure similar to that reported by Harter (1981b). The challenge motivation subscale has achieved high reliability coefficients in studies of children's motivation (Brustad, 1988; Klint, 1988; Weiss & Horn, 1990). Thus, this indicant of intrinsic motivation was chosen for use in the present study. The swimming-specific challenge motivation subscale

6 314 / Black and Weiss was comprised of six items in a structured-alternative format. Items were scored from low preference for challenge (1) to high preference for challenge (4). The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI; Ryan, 1982) was developed to measure overall intrinsic motivation and five underlying dimensions of intrinsic motivation (interest/enjoyment, perceived competence, choice, effort/importance, and pressure/tension). McAuley et al. (1989) have reported acceptable factorial validity and reliability for a competitive-sport version of the IMI on the dimensions of interest/enjoyment, perceived competence, effort/importance, and pressureltension. Klint (1988) reported an alpha coefficient of.66 for the choice subscale of the IMI in her study of young female gymnasts. Several gymnasts, however, had difficult interpreting one item ("I feel I have to participate in gymnastics"). Consequently, the item was eliminated, and this resulted in an acceptable alpha value of.79. This item was modified in the present study by underlining "have to" in order to maximize the reliability of the choice subscale. The present study employed four of the five dimensions: interest/enjoyment, choice, effort/importance, and pressure/tension. Fifteen items were scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from very true (5) to not true at all (1). Procedure Initial contact was made with Oregon Swimming, the governing body for competitive swimming in Oregon, to obtain permission for the study. A letter was then sent to 20 team coaches to explain the purpose of the study and what the study would involve and to request the coaches' permission to use their swimmers as subjects. Several weeks after the mailing, 11 head coaches were contacted by phone. Permission was given by all coaches, and testing dates were arranged. Prior to the test date, informed-consent forms were mailed to the head coaches. Coaches were instructed to have their athletes, and the athletes' parents or guardians, complete the forms and return them on or before the test date. Coaches were also contacted by phone 2 days prior to the test date and reminded of the necessity for the informed-consent forms. On the day of questionnaire administration, only those athletes with completed informed-consent forms were allowed to participate in the study. Coaches were asked to leave the room or pool area. Participating athletes were told the general purpose of the study and received instructions for completing the questionnaires. To control for social desirability, the following information was emphasized: No one would see the responses except the main investigator, the coaches would not have access to the completed questionnaires, names would not appear on the questionnaires, and questions did not have right or wrong answers. In addition to the main investigator, at least one assistant was present to help answer questions and to collect questionnaires. Results Because of the small number of teams (n=l 1), the individual was used as the unit of analysis. This was accomplished by standardizing all variables in relation to the team mean (Horn, 1984, 1985). Specifically, all scores were converted to z scores, which reflected the number of standard deviations each

7 Perceived Coaching Behaviors / 3 15 score was away from the team mean. This allowed for comparisons among individual swimmers but also controlled for the influence of the social context of the team. Scale Reliabilities Each measure used in the present study was evaluated for reliability using Cronbach's (1951) alpha coefficient. According to a criterion of.70 (Nunnally, 1978), the following subscales reached acceptable reliability levels: praise (.78), praise plus information (.84), information only (.84), encouragement (.74), criticism (.73), encouragement plus information (.73), perceived success (.79), enjoyment (.76), choice (.78), effort (.76), and challenge motivation (.74). Criticism plus information achieved an alpha of.69; it was decided to retain this measure due to its theoretical and empirical relevance to the study. The six-item perceived swimming competence subscale initially recorded an alpha of.64. However, the item intercorrelations and squared multiple correlations revealed that Items 2 and 5 were unreliable for the sample in this study. Removing these items resulted in an alpha of.69, and this scale was retained for further analyses. Additionally, Item 4 on the enjoyment subscale also showed low item reliability and was removed from the analysis to increase the alpha coefficient from.76 to 36. Unfortunately, four subscales were found to be unreliable and were excluded from further analyses: no response to desirable performances (.60), no response to undesirable performances (.57), corrective information following undesirable performances (.6 I), and pressure/tension (.6 1). Correlations Among Variables Correlations among all variables were calculated to check for multicollinearity (1-2.70). Correlations above this standard were found for information only and praise plus information following desirable performances (r=.86), and for criticism only and criticism plus information following undesirable performances (r=.72). Thus, composite variables were created by averaging each subject's scores on these pairs of variables. These correlations are interesting in light of their likely interpretation. Athletes responded similarly for perceived coaching behaviors in the form of information only and praise plus information. Thus, information was the common denominator here, meaning that athletes seemed to focus on the information for how to improve and attended less to the praise. For criticism only and criticism plus information, the common denominator was criticism. Thus, a negative remark, whether given on its own or with corrective information, was the athletes' focus. Consequently, the new composite variables were labeled information and criticism, respectively. Because these variables were newly created ones, alpha coefficients were calculated for information following desirable performances and for criticism following undesirable performances; the alphas were.92 and.83, respectively. Preliminary MANOVA for Gender and Age Differences A preliminary 2x3 (Gender x Age) MANOVA was conducted to determine whether there were significant gender and/or age differences on all variables.

8 316 / Black and Weiss This was done in order to choose between using only one or using several regression analyses to test the study hypotheses. Results revealed significant gender and age main effects. For gender, Wilks's lambda=.90, F(11,296)=3.04, p<.001. Follow-up univariate F values and standardized discriminant coefficients were examined to determine which dependent variables contributed most to differences between males and females. Discriminant coefficients were relied upon more heavily because they are multivariate in nature and, thus, continue to account for the correlations among variables. These coefficients suggested that perceptions of coaches' use of praise (-.60) and perceived competence (-SO) maximized gender differences. Specifically, females scored significantly lower than males on perceptions of praise and competence. Means and standard deviations for males and females on all variables can be found in Table 1. For age, Wilks's lambda=.85, F(22,592)=2.27,p<.OOl. Follow-up standardized discriminant coefficients and univariate F values suggested that perceived encouragement plus information following undesirable performances (35) and perceived success (-.49) maximized age-group differences. Follow-up Student/ Newman-Keuls revealed that and year-olds perceived more success than did year-old swimmers. Examination of the means for encouragement plus information (which did not reach univariate significance) revealed that year-olds scored lower in perceptions of encouragement plus information than the two older age groups. Means and standard deviations for the age groups on all variables can be seen in Table 2. Multivariate Multiple Regression Analyses Because there were significant gender and age main effects, separate regression analyses were conducted for males and females and for the three age groups. Table 1 Unstandardized Means and Standard Deviations for Gender Variables Females M SD Males M SD Perceived coaching behaviors Praise Information Encouragement Encouragement + information Criticism Motivational indicators Perceived success Perceived competence Challenge motivation Enjoyment Choice Effort

9 Perceived Coaching Behaviors / 317 Table 2 Unstandardized Means and Standard Deviations for Age Variables yrs yrs yrs M SD M SD M SD Perceived coaching behaviors Praise Information Encouragement Encouragement + information Criticism Motivational variables Perceived success Perceived competence Challenge motivation Enjoyment Choice Effort These analyses tested for the relationships between perceived coaching behaviors and the psychosocial variables related to self-perceptions of ability and motivation. Females. A multivariate regression analysis was conducted using praise, information, encouragement, encouragement plus information, and criticism as predictor variables. Criterion variables were perceived success; perceived competence; challenge motivation; and perceptions of enjoyment, choice, and effort. The overall multivariate analysis was significant, Wilks's lambda=.68, F(30,630)=2.14, p<.0001, indicating that the perceived coaching behaviors were predictive of the set of motivational indicators. A follow-up canonical correlation analysis was employed to investigate this multivariate relationship. The correlation between the two sets of variables was Rc=.44, indicating a moderate relationship. The canonical loadings provided further information regarding the relative contribution of each variable to the overall multivariate relationship. A loading of.30 or higher indicates a significant contribution (Pedhazur, 1982). Table 3 provides a list of the canonical loadings for all variables. Specifically, the loadings for the predictor variables indicated that information and praise following performance success, and encouragement and encouragement plus information following undesirable performances, were significant contributors. Canonical loadings for the criterion variables revealed that perceived success contributed most to the overall relationship, followed by enjoyment, perceived competence, effort, and preference for challenge. These results indicate that female swimmers who perceived higher frequencies of contingent information, praise, encouragement, and encouragement plus information reported higher levels of perceived success, enjoyment, perceived competence, effort, and preference for challenging activities. The redundancy

10 3 18 / Black and Weiss Table 3 Canonical Loadings for Gender Variables Females Canonical loadings Males Predictor variables Praise Information Encouragement Encouragement + information Criticism Criterion variables Perceived success Perceived competence Challenge motivation Enjoyment Choice Effort index, which reflects the amount of shared variance between the two sets of variables, revealed that 9.3% of the variance in the criterion set was explained by the predictor set. A redundancy index of 10% is considered to be significant and meaningful (Pedhazur, 1982); thus, the obtained value fell below this standard. Males. Results of the multivariate multiple regression analysis for males also revealed a significant relationship between the sets of variables, Wilks's lambda=.68, F(30,538)=1.84, p<.005. Canonical analysis resulted in a correlation of Rc=.43 between the sets of predictor and criterion variables. Additionally, canonical loadings suggested that information and praise following desirable performances, and encouragement plus information following undesirable performances, were significant predictor variables for the multivariate relationship (see Table 3). For the criterion set, challenge motivation, perceived competence, and perceived success contributed most to the multivariate relationship. These results indicate that male swimmers who perceived greater frequencies of information, praise, and encouragement plus information were associated with higher levels of perceived competence, perceived success, and preference for challenging activities. The redundancy index value was 3.7%, indicating the amount of variance in the criterion set explained by the predictor set. 10-Il-Year-01ds. Results of the multivariate multiple regression analysis were not significant, Wilks's lambda=.75, F(30,442)=1.09, p<.34. Thus, year-old competitive swimmers' perceptions of their coaches' behaviors were not consistently related to indicators of self-perceptions of ability and motivation. Consequently, no follow-up analyses were warranted Year-Olds. Results of this multivariate regression analysis were significant, Wilks's lambda=.61, F(30,390)=1.70, p<.ol. A canonical correlation of Rc=.48 indicated a moderate relationship between predictor and criterion

11 Perceived Coaching Behaviors / 319 Table 4 Canonical Loadings for Age Variables Canonical loadings yrs yrs Predictor variables Praise Information Encouragement Encouragement + information Criticism Criterion variables Perceived success Perceived competence Challenge motivation Enjoyment Choice Effort variables. Canonical loadings for the predictor variables suggested that information following desirable performances was the most important contributor to the overall multivariate relationship, followed by encouragement plus information and encouragement only following performance errors. All criterion variables were significant contributors to the relationship, with enjoyment, perceived success, and perceived competence contributing most substantively. A listing of canonical loadings can be found in Table 4. The findings from these analyses suggest that swimmers in the year-old age group who perceived their coaches as giving more information, encouragement, and encouragement plus information scored higher on all indicators of self-perceptions of ability and motivation. The redundancy index indicated that 7.4% of the variance in the criterion variables was explained by the predictor variables Year-Olds. The overall multivariate regression analysis was significant, Wilks's lambda=.49, F(30,290)=1.87, p<.005. The canonical correlation was Rc=.53, indicating a moderate relationship between the two sets of variables. Moreover, the canonical loadings of the predictor variables indicated that praise, information, criticism, and encouragement plus information significantly contributed to the overall relationship (see Table 4). The canonical loadings for the criterion variables suggested that perceived success, challenge motivation, enjoyment, effort, and perceived competence were significant contributors. These results indicated that year-old swimmers who perceived higher frequencies of information, praise, and encouragement plus information, and lower frequencies of criticism, had higher levels of self-perceptions of ability, enjoyment, effort, and challenge motivation. The redundancy index indicated that the predictor variables accounted for 6.7% of the variance in the criterion set.

12 320 / Black and Weiss Discussion The purpose of the present study was to determine whether perceived coaching behaviors are related to self-perceptions of ability and motivation in competitive age-group swimmers. Three of the results obtained from preliminary analyses impacted testing of the hypotheses. First, inadequate reliability coefficients were found for the pressure dimension of the IMI and for the perceived coaching behavior subscale that depicts corrective information following performance errors. Consequently, hypotheses related to these variables could not be tested. Second, correlational analyses indicated that information only and praise plus information, and criticism and criticism plus information, were multicollinear. Thus, composite variables characterizing average scores on these two variables were created. As a result, the new variables were labeled information and criticism, respectively. Finally, a MANOVA revealed main effects for gender and age on perceived coaching behaviors and self-perception variables. Therefore, five multivariate multiple regression analyses were employed to test the major hypotheses of the study. The first hypothesis was strongly or partially supported across the five subgroup analyses. Female swimmers who perceived that their coaches gave more praise and information following desirable performances scored higher on levels of perceived success, perceived competence, challenge motivation, enjoyment, and effort. Male swimmers who perceived that their coaches gave more praise and information following desirable performances scored higher on three of the five variables shown for females: perceived success, perceived competence, and challenge motivation. For age, year-old swimmers' perceptions of their coaches' behaviors in response to desirable performances were not consistently related to the selfperception and motivation variables. Thus, the first hypothesis was not supported for this age group. In the next age group, year-old swimmers who perceived that their coaches gave more information following desirable performances scored higher on all self-perception and motivation variables. Praise did not enter as a significant contributor to these variables. Finally, year-old swimmers who perceived their coaches as more frequently providing praise and information following desirable performances scored higher on all variables except perceived choice. In general, looking across gender and the two older age groups, coaches who were perceived as giving more information and praise following desirable performances were associated with swimmers who scored higher on measures of perceived success and competence, preference for challenging activities, and perceptions of enjoyment and effort. The second hypothesis was also strongly or partially supported, depending on the subgroup examined. Specifically, female swimmers who perceived more frequent encouragement and encouragement plus information following undesirable performances were associated with higher levels of perceived success, competence, challenge motivation, enjoyment, and effort. Male swimmers who perceived more frequent encouragement plus information reported higher levels of perceived success, competence, and challenge motivation. For age, 10-1 I-year-old swimmers' perceptions of their coaches' behaviors in response to performance errors were not significantly related to self-perception and motivation variables. In the next age group, year-old swimmers who

13 Perceived Coaching Behaviors / 321 perceived higher levels of encouragement and encouragement plus information rated themselves higher in perceived success, competence, challenge motivation, enjoyment, choice, and effort (i.e., all of the psychosocial indicators). Finally, year-old swimmers who perceived higher levels of encouragement plus information from their coaches showed higher ratings of perceived success, competence, challenge motivation, enjoyment, and effort. In summary, coaches who were rated as engaging in more frequent encouragement plus information following undesirable performances were associated with swimmers who believed they were more successful and competent, preferred optimally challenging activities, demonstrated more effort, and greatly enjoyed their sport experiences. In addition to findings related to the two hypotheses, insights emerged concerning gender differences on coaching behaviors and self-perception variables. First, multivariate analyses indicated that females scored significantly lower than males on perceptions of praise and competence. Previous research in the academic domain has suggested that females tend to depend less on peer comparison and more on adult feedback than males do (Dweck & Bush, 1976; Lenney, 1977; Ruble, Parsons, & Ross, 1976). Also, empirical research has shown that females receive less contingent and appropriate reinforcement than males do (see Horn, 1987). Thus, findings in this study may be due to actual coaching-behavior differences and/or gender differences in the self-assessment process. If females perceive less praise, or actually receive more noncontingent or inappropriate praise, then it follows that their perceptions of competence may be more negatively affected than males' perceptions of competence by coaching behaviors. No relationship was found between perceived coaching behaviors and selfperception variables for the year-old age group. One plausible explanation may be linked to Nicholls's (1984) proposed developmental changes in the ability to differentiate among ability, effort, and task difficulty. More specifically, until about the age of 12 years, children may equate effort with ability. Therefore, these children's perceptions of coaching behaviors may not be related to specific self-perceptions or motivated behavior. A relationship between coaches' criticisms and motivational indicators was also found, but only for year-olds. Specifically, criticism was negatively related to perceived success, perceived competence, challenge motivation, enjoyment, and effort. Criticism in this study was operationalized as a negative statement about poor performance (e.g., "Your stroke looks lousy! "). Thus, coaching responses that were negative, even if they provided information, were detrimental to these swimmers' self-perceptions of ability and motivation. The results from this study of the relationship between coaching behaviors and psychosocial variables support as well as extend previous coaching-behavior research (Horn, 1984, 1985; Smith et al., 1978, 1979; Smith et al., 1983). For example, Smith and Smoll and their colleagues found that coaches who displayed more encouragement, positive reinforcement, and instruction and less criticism had players who enjoyed baseball more and had higher levels of self-esteem. The present study obtained similar results using perceived coaching behaviors instead of objective measures of coaching behaviors. Smith and Smoll's research is also extended by the present study. That is, coaches' behaviors not only influenced sport enjoyment and self-esteem (i.e., perceived swimming competence), but also influenced perceived success, effort, and preference for optimally challenging activities.

14 322 / Black and Weiss In contrast to these findings, Horn (1985) found that less positive reinforcement and more criticism positively affected players' perceived competence. In Horn's study, observed coaching behaviors in the form of positive reinforcement were often noncontingent and inappropriate (e.g., "good") whereas criticism was actually better characterized by the prevalence of informational feedback. This feedback was not only contingent-it was also appropriate for improving performance. In light of Horn's interpretation of her results, results in the present study actually provide support for and extend her findings. That is, all coaching behaviors were contingent upon performance. Moreover, criticism was defined as a negative remark that did not necessarily contain corrective information. More frequent praise, information, and encouragement and less frequent criticism (for year-olds) were found to positively influence perceptions of ability and motivation. Thus, in accordance with Horn's (1987) contentions about the quantity and quality of coaching behaviors, the results of the present study are consistent with her recommendations for effective coaching behaviors. The results of the present study also provide support for Harter's (1978, 1981a) competence motivation theory. Perceived coaching behaviors that were contingent and appropriate to performance were significantly related to perceptions of ability, positive affect, and motivation indicators in competitive agegroup swimmers. Specifically, coaches' use of more frequent praise, informational feedback, and encouragement was positively related to perceived competence and success, enjoyment, effort, and preference for optimally challenging activities. An additional theoretical implication concerns the low scores on the redundancy index. The percent of variance in the psychosocial variables accounted for by the perceived coaching behaviors ranged from 3.7 to 9.3. This may not be too surprising when considering the multidimensional characteristics of Harter's (1978, 1981a) theory. Competence motivation theory involves the interaction of multiple factors that influence each other and, in turn, influence perceptions of ability, intrinsic pleasure, and motivation. The influence of an athlete's coach is only one factor. Other possible predictors of psychosocial variables include the influence of other socializing agents (e.g., parents and peers), actual skill improvements, goal orientations, and psychological characteristics such as competitive trait anxiety and self-esteem. Thus, future investigations of the link between significant others' influence and psychological development should consider the social networks that impact upon children's sport experiences, including the specific individuals who occupy children's lives and their specific social-support functions. Coaches play a crucial role in the lives of young athletes. The present study supports this conclusion but also reveals that many factors influence the formation of perceptions of ability and continued motivation in sport. Thus, additional research is warranted to further investigate these other factors and how they interact. Future research should ultimately provide additional information to practitioners who have the opportunity to make sport a more positive experience for children. References Brustad, R.J. (1988). Affective outcomes in competitive youth sport: The influence of intrapersonal and socialization factors. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 10,

15 Perceived Coaching Behaviors / 323 Carmines, E.G., & Zeller, R.A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Carron, A.V. (1984). Motivation: Implications for coaching and teaching. London, ON: Sports Dynamics. Chelladurai, P. (1984). Discrepancy between preferences and perceptions of leadership behavior and satisfaction of athletes in varying sports. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, Cronbach, L.J. (195 1). Coefficient alpha and internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, Dweck, C.S., & Bush, E.S. (1976). Sex differences in learned helplessness: I. Differential debilitation with peer and adult evaluators. Developmental Psychology, 12, Gould, D. (1988). Your role as a coach. In V. Seefeldt (Ed.), Handbook for youth sports coaches (pp ). Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. Gould, D., Feltz, D., & Weiss, M. (1985). Motives for participating in competitive youth swimming. Interizational Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, Gould, D., & Petlichkoff, L. (1988). Participation motivation and attrition in young athletes. In F.L. Smoll, R.A. Magill, & M.J. Ash (Eds.), Children in sport (3rd ed., pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered. Human Development, 21, Harter, S. (1981a). A model of intrinsic mastery motivation in children: Individual differences and developmental change. In W.A. Collins (Ed.), The Minnesota symposia on child psychology: Vol. 14. Aspects of the development of competence (pp ). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Harter, S. (1981b). A new self-report scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation in the classroom: Motivational and informational components. Developmental Psychology, 17, Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the Self-Perceprion Profile for Children. Denver: University of Denver. Horn, T.S. (1984). Expectancy effects in the interscholastic athletic setting: Methodological considerations. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, Horn, T.S. (1985). Coaches' feedback and changes in children's perceptions of their physical competence. Jourizal of Educatioizal Psychology, 77, Horn, T.S. (1987). The influence of teacher-coach behavior on the psychological development of children. In D. Gould & M.R. Weiss (Eds.), Advances in pediatric sport sciences: Vol. 2. Behavioral issues (pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Horn, T.S., & Glenn, S. (1988, June). The relationship between athletes' psychological characteristics and their preference for particular coaching behaviors. Paper presented at the annual conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Knoxville, TN. Horn, T.S., & Hasbrook, C.A. (1986). Informational components influencing children's perceptions of their physical competence. In M.R. Weiss & D. Gould (Eds.), Sport for children and youths: Proceedings of the 1984 Olympic scientific congress (Vol. 10, pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Horn, T.S., & Hasbrook, C.A. (1987). Psychological characteristics and the criteria children use for self-evaluation. Journal of Sport Psychology, 9, Klint, K.A. (1988). An analysis of the positivistic and naturalistic paradigms of inquiry:

16 324 / Black and Weiss Implications for the field of sport psychology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene. Klint, K.A., & Weiss, M.R. (1986). Dropping in and dropping out: Participation motives of current and former youth gymnasts. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 11, Lenney, E. (1977). Women's self-confidence in achievement situations. Psychological Bulletin, 84, Martens, R. (1990). Successful coaching. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press. McAuley, E., Duncan, T., & Tammen, V.V. (1989). Psychometric properties of the intrinsic motivation inventory in a competitive sport setting: A confirmatory factor analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 60, Nicholls, J.G. (1984). Achievement motivation, conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, Nunnally, J.C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Pedhazur, E.J. (1982). Multiple regression in behavioral research: Explanation and prediction (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Ruble, D., Parsons, J., & Ross, J. (1976). Self-evaluative responses of children in an achievement setting. Child Development, 47, Ryan, R.M. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, Smith, R.E., Smoll, F.L., & Curtis, B. (1978). Coaching behaviors in little league baseball. In F.L. Smoll & R.E. Smith (Eds.), Psychologicalperspectives in youth sports (pp ). Washington, DC: Hemisphere. Smith, R.E., Smoll, F.L., & Curtis, B. (1979). Coach effectiveness training: A cognitivebehavioral approach to enhancing relationship skills in youth sport coaches. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1, Smith, R.E., Zane, N.W.S., Smoll, F.L., & Coppel, D.B. (1983). Behavioral assessment in youth sports: Coaching behaviors and children's attitudes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 15, Smoll, F.L., & Smith, R.E. (1989). Leadership behaviors in sport: A theoretical model and research paradigm. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19, Weiss, M.R. (1987). Self-esteem and achievement in children's sport and physical activity. In D. Gould & M.R. Weiss (Eds.), Advances in pediatric sport sciences: Vol. 2. Behavioral issues (pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Weiss, M.R., Bredemeier, B.J., & Shewchuk, R.M. (1985). An intrinsic/extrinsic motivation scale for the youth sport setting: A confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of Sport Psychology, 7, Weiss, M.R., & Chaumeton, N. (1992). Motivational orientations in sport. In T.S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Weiss, M.R., & Friedrichs, W.D. (1986). The influence of leader behaviors, coach attributes, and institutional variables on performance and satisfaction of collegiate basketball teams. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, Weiss, M.R., & Horn, T.S. (1990). The relationship between children's accuracy estimates of their physical competence and achievement-related characteristics. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 61, Weiss, M.R., & Petlichkoff, L.M. (1989). Children's motivation for participation in and withdrawal from sport: Identifying the missing links. Pediatric Exercise Science, 1,

17 Perceived Coaching Behaviors / 325 Westre, K.R., & Weiss, M.R. (1991). The relationship between perceived coaching behaviors and group cohesion in high school football teams. The Sport Psychologist, 5, Acknowledgment The authors would like to thank Julia Reisinger and Andy Clark for their help during data collection. Manuscript submitted: October 4, 1991 Revision received: January 15, 1992 Eighth World Congress of Sport Psychology "Sport Psychology: An Integrated Approach" June 22-27, 1993, Lisbon, Portugal Invited Speakers Robert Singer, Joan Duda, Jim Loehr (USA) Stuart Biddle (UK) Bruce Abernethy (Australia) Burt Carron, Robert Schutz (Canada) Kary Fasting (Norway) Dieter Hackfort (Germany) Hubert Ripoll (France) Francisco Sobral (Portugal) Topics Cognition & decision making Talent identification & development Social psychological processes Measurement & methodological issues Motor performance & skill acquisition Coaching & psychology Cultural differences in sport Problems & issues in sport Health & wellness School sport Computer applications Individuals are invited to submit proposals for original research presentations, posters, symposia, and workshops related to the conference theme and topics. Proposals should be sent by December 1,1992, to Denis Glencross, School of Psychology, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, 6001 Australia. Tel: , Fax: For general information, contact Sid6nio Serpa, Congress Organizing Committee, FMH-UTL, Cruz Quebrada, 1499 Lisboa Codex, Portugal. Tel: , Fax: