Psychology Pedagogics and Multidisciplinary Issues

Transcription

1 Psychology Pedagogics and Multidisciplinary Issues 457

2 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF COHESION IN VOLLEYABALL TEAMS OF YOUNGER AGE GROUPS RELATIONS BETWEEN SPORTS MOTIVATION AND PLAYER POSITIONS OF YOUNG FEMALE VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS ATHLETES COMPETITIVE EXPERIENCE AS A DETERMINANT OF THE CONFORMITY DO ATHLETES HAVE A MORE POSITIVE SELF-PERCEPTION OF PHYSICAL APPEARANCE? BODY IMAGE AND COMPETITIVE RANK AMONG SPORT DANCERS STRUCTURE AND FEATURES OF COMPETITIVENESS INDEX THE EFFECT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING PROGRAM ON FOOTBALL PLAYERS TO COGNITIVELY MANAGE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS SPORTS IDOLS OF JUNIOR ATHLETES INVESTIGATION OF DIFFERECES IN SPORT RECREATIONAL INTERESTS AT SAMPLE OF ATHLETES IN EARLY ADOLESCENCE EFFECT OF SOME PSYCHO-SOCIAL FACTORS ON THE MOTIVATIONAL READINESS FOR CHANGE IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY HABITS AMONG YOUNG SCHOOL GIRLS AGED 15 TO Sporting habits and sport motivation among volunteers in Hungary THE ROLE OF PARENTS IN PREVENTION OF A CHILD S AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR THE RELATION OF LEARNING AND INTELLIGENCE TO THE CREATIVE THINKING OF THE CHILDREN INTELLECTUAL MATURITY RELATIONSHIP TO AGE AND ACCADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN STUDENTS OF SPECIAL SCHOOL FOR ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION IN NIS QUALITY OF LIFE IN CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES OBSERVED THROUGH PHYSICAL HEALTH DOMAIN MENS SANA IN CORPORE SANO FROM ITS ORIGINS UP TO NOW THE MOVE PROJECT: GOOD PRACTICES IN CROSS-CUTTING COMMUNITY INITIATIVES TO PROMOTE HEALTH-ENHANCING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR SOCIO-ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS VOUCHER SYSTEM IN SPORT SPORTS COMPONENT IN TOURISM ANALYSIS OF ADVENTURE TOURISM MILITARY SPORT TRAINING CENTERS IN LATVIAN COASTLINE: EXAMPLE OF SPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IN PERIPHERAL AREAS THE ROLE OF LEADERS IN MANAGING STRATEGIC CHANGES IN THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA AND IN WOMEN'S SPORT The Strategic Sports Event Planning: A Case Study of the UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship PREFERENCES FOR TRADITIONAL OR PARTICIPATORY APPROACH TO WORK STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF BETTING PHENOMENON: WHY IS ALWAYS JUST A SINGLE PAIR MISSING NEW REQUIREMENTS IN TEACHING ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

3 CHARACTERISTICS OF COHESION IN VOLLEYBALL TEAMS OF YOUNGER AGE GROUPS Damir Jurko 1, Josefina Jukić 1, Hrvoje Sivrić 1 and Snježana Velić 2 1 Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Croatia 2 University of Mostar, Departement of Physical Education, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract The main goal of this research was to determine the characteristics of cohesion in young male and female volleyball players. The sample consisted of 120 subjects aged between 14 and 19, 84 of which were female volleyball players from 7 clubs, and 36 were male volleyball players of 3 clubs. All clubs were from Bosnia and Herzegovina. All participants completed a Group Environment Questionnaire GEQ (Carron et al. 1985). The questionnaire consists of 18 questions which assess 4 aspects (components) of cohesion: individuals personal attraction to group-task (ATG-T), individuals personal attraction to group-social (ATG-S), group integration-task (GI-T), group integration-social (GI-S). By analyzing the metric characteristics, it has been concluded that the reliability of all components in the GEQ questionnaire was satisfactory. However, all components of cohesiveness, except the GI-T variable, deviated significantly from the normal distribution (they were not sensitive). Subjects showed high values of group cohesiveness. In doing so, higher average values of the two variables assessing individuals personal attraction to group-social and individuals personal attraction to group-task were obtained. By correlation analysis, statistically significant moderate positive relation was found between individual components of the GEQ questionnaire. The analysis of differences has not shown statistically significant differences between the subjects in individual aspects of cohesiveness in relation to gender, player position and contribution to the team result. Male volleyball players were, to some extent, oriented more towards the group achievement of sports tasks, and female volleyball players towards the social aspects of cohesion. In comparison to players with the greatest and the lowest player contribution, players with medium player contribution expressed somewhat higher values of group cohesiveness in all variables analyzed. Keywords: group integration, personal attraction, cohesiveness, volleyball Introduction The field of sports psychology is generally focused on investigating and emphasizing individual motivation and performance in sports, even though most sports activities take place in groups. A conceptual model of cohesion, developed by Carron, Widmeyer & Brawley (1985), is based on the assumption that individual, as well as group characteristics of cohesion are shown, partially, as multidimensional beliefs and perceptions of individual group members. The model represents the fact that each group member receives pieces of information from different areas of social environment, which are important and significant for the group, by generating numerous perceptions and beliefs. It is assumed that the process through which a team enhances its cohesion is the one occurring through social learning, in such a way that athletes mutually interact with the environment. These concepts are related to the manner in which the operative measuring of cohesion by Group Enviroinment Questionnaire (GEQ), constructed by Carron et al. (1985), has been conducted, and are also related to the procedures of measuring cohesion in sports teams. It can be concluded that sports team members are related in multiple ways: informally as friends social cohesion and formally by their roles within the team, and in coordination of individual efforts cohesion of task performance (Petrovski, 1983, according to Cox, 2005). 459

4 Spink (1990) proved that both individuals personal attraction to group-task and group integration-social were significantly different among elite volleyball players in groups with low and high level of collective efficacy. Teams with high level of group efficacy ranked cohesion at a higher level. On the other hand, there were no significant differences among the recreational teams. Spink (1992) also established that volleyball clubs with a higher level of perception of collective efficacy were ranked significantly higher in competitions in relation to those with a lower level of collective efficacy. Volleyball players from university and club teams who perceived high task cohesion also achieved high general efficacy in their teams (Paskevich et al., 1999). Carron et al. (2002) concluded that there was a significant positive correlation between cohesion and performance. This relation was investigated regardless of the cohesion type (task or social cohesion), gender, sports type or skills/experience of the contestants (high school students, professionals). Moreover, both task and social cohesion were reciprocally related to performance. Ntoumanis & Aggelonidis (2004) conducted a research with the aim of determining the metric characteristics of GEQ (Greek version). The subject sample consisted of 586 Greek male and female volleyball players of higher (1 st league) and lower (regional league) quality level. The authors have found that the metric characteristics were good, apart from a very high correlation obtained between the factors. Male and female volleyball players of higher quality level are more dedicated to the common goal, and less to socializing, i.e., developing friendships within the team. Agelonidis (2004) conducted a research using a sample of 282 male and female volleyball players, members of the Greek 1 st league, with the aim of determining the changes in team cohesiveness during the competitive season. Group environment questionnaire" was used in the testing. The questionnaire was administered to subjects four times during the competitive season. The data was analyzed on a sample of 77 male and female volleyball players who filled in the questionnaire on all 4 occasions. The obtained results indicate the inconsistent results obtained in different parts of the competitive season. The questionnaire components related to the task and social group activities were mutually highly correlated in all measuring points. It was also established that, in particular components of cohesiveness, the results at the end of the season can be predicted based on the results in those components at the beginning of the season. All the aforementioned studies have dealt with establishing the characteristics of cohesiveness in senior and university teams on the overall efficacy, but without analyzing the possible differences between the subjects in different player positions and of different player contribution in the level of group cohesiveness among younger age categories. The aim of this research was to establish the characteristics of cohesiveness in volleyball teams (players aged 14-19) in relation to gender, role (position) within the team and estimated player contribution of their players. Method The sample consisted of the total of 120 entities aged 14 to 19. Out of these, 84 were female volleyball players from 7 clubs, and 36 were male volleyball players of 3 clubs from Bosnia and Herzegovina. All subjects filled in the GEQ, a questionnaire of group cohesion (Carron et al., 1985). The questionnaire includes 18 questions assessing 4 components of cohesion: Individuals personal attraction to group-task (ATG-T) 4 items, Individuals personal attraction to group-social (ATG-S) 5 items, Group integration-task (GI-T) 5 items, Group integration-social (GI-S) 4 items. All items are assessed on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (I strongly disagree) to 5 (I fully agree). With the purpose of determining the player specialization of each volleyball player, one of the items in the questionnaire required players to answer what position they usually played in their team. The player was to choose one of the five player positions offered: setter, opposite player, wing-tritter, middle blocker 1 st tempo attacker and libero. The testing procedure was conducted within volleyball club facilities just before training practices. The surveyor gave short preceding motivational and work instructions, and stressed that the 460

5 testing was not anonymous but the anonymity was guaranteed. The surveyor gave additional instructions as needed and when asked by the participants. In order to determine the metric characteristics for validation on a sample of female volleyball players, reliability was calculated Cronbach alpha coefficient of reliability, as well as sensitivity measures of normality (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test) and shape of results distribution (Skew and Kurt). By descriptive analysis, the following parameters were assessed: mean (M), standard deviation (SD), and result range (MIN and MAX). Pearson s correlation coefficient was used to determine the relations between measures of group cohesion, and a Mann Whitney U test with the associated U-test values and significance level (p) was used to determine the differences between male and female volleyball players in the level of cohesiveness. The differences between the subjects in different player positions and of different player contribution in the level of cohesiveness were analyzed by a Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA ranks test, by calculating: group means (M), standard deviations of groups (SD), coefficient of the Kruskal-Wallis test (H) and level of significance (p). Results Table 1 shows basic descriptive indicators of variables (mean, standard deviation, and minimum and maximum results in each variable for assessing cohesiveness in volleyball teams). Apart from these, some metric characteristics of variables (reliability and sensitivity) are also presented. Table 1. Means and metric characteristics of GEQ scales VAR M SD MIN MAX SKEW KURT p= (K-S)* CA ATG-S * 0.71 ATG-T * 0.68 GI-S * 0.78 GI-T LEGEND: M mean, SD standard deviation, MIN minimum result, MAX maximum result, SKEW result of the symmetry of result distribution, KURT result of the shape of result distribution, p= (K- S)* significance level of Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and the level of statistical significance, CA Cronbach alpha coefficient of reliability Reliability of individual components of cohesiveness was calculated using a Cronbach alpha coefficient (CA). Its values range between 0.67 and In measuring of some motor tests when the same task is repeated many times (e.g., standing long jump), 0.75 is considered a lower threshold of CA. However, in questionnaires which have several different items assessing some common unit (in this case, the components of cohesiveness in a volleyball team), somewhat lower values of the CA coefficient are also acceptable. Thus, it can be concluded that the reliability of all components of cohesiveness in the GEQ questionnaire is satisfactory. The reliability would probably be even higher if the subject sample was increased. On the other hand, all components of cohesiveness, except the GI-T variable, deviate significantly from the normal distribution. In other words, these components of the questionnaire are not sensitive. Values of the measure of result distribution symmetry (SKEW) in those variables indicate the negative asymmetry, i.e., most of the subjects had above average results in those variables. This is particularly pronounced in the Individuals personal attraction to group-social variable. Even though parametric procedures of data analysis should not be performed in these variables, the author provided mean values in all tables to enable a clearer comparison between the variables. However, in the analysis of differences between the groups of subjects, non-parametric procedures were used in these variables. By analyzing the mean values in each component of cohesiveness, higher values can be noticed in 2 variables assessing individual attraction of team members to group social activities (ATG-S) e.g., socializing, and attraction to the performance of group tasks (ATG-T) e.g., group orientation toward some sports goal. Lower values were found in 2 variables by which individuals evaluate the cohesiveness of the whole group in social activities (GI-S) and task performance (GI-T). 461

6 Table 2 shows the results of correlation analysis on a sample of variables assessing group cohesiveness. Table 2. Correlation between the measures of cohesion in GEQ VAR ATG-S ATG-T GI-S GI-T ATG-S ** 0.43** 0.28** ATG-T 0.43** ** 0.55** GI-S 0.43** 0.52** ** GI-T 0.28** 0.55** 0.57** 1.00 LEGEND:** Significance of correlation coefficients at the level of p <.01 Correlations range from 0.28 (between GI-T I ATG-S) to 0.57 (between GI-T and GI-S), i.e., four components of group cohesiveness are mutually correlated, but this correlation is not high enough to claim group cohesion is a one-dimensional construct. This justifies a multidimensional approach in evaluating cohesion, because otherwise, important information about particular characteristics of group cohesiveness would be lost. Table 3. Descriptive data and testing of differences between the sexes according to measures of cohesion VAR M SD Mann-W U test Z P= ATG-S ATG-T GI-S GI-T FEMALE MALE FEMALE MALE FEMALE MALE FEMALE MALE LEGEND: M mean, SD standard deviation, Mann-Whitney U test coefficient of U test,, Z coefficient of statistical significance, P= level of statistical significance, * statistically significant difference It can be seen from Table 3 that there were no significant differences between male and female volleyball players in the level of group cohesiveness (values of U-test, z-coefficients and the level of statistical significance p). Even though there were no statistically significant differences between the sexes in particular aspects of team cohesiveness, it can be noticed that female volleyball players were oriented more toward the achievement of social aspects of cohesiveness, whereas male volleyball players were oriented more toward the group performance of sports (training and competitive) tasks. Table 4. Analysis of differences between groups of players in different player positions according to the level of cohesion VAR ATG-S ATG-T GI-S GI-T SETTER N-20 OPPOSITE N-11 WING- TRITTER N-33 MIDDLE BLOCKER N-33 M SD M SD M SD M SD LIBERO N-20 H P= LEGEND: M mean, SD standard deviation, H coefficient of the Kruskal-Wallis test, P= level of statistical significance, * statistically significant difference 462

7 Table 4 shows the results of non-parametric test of differences between the player roles in volleyball, in relation to the level of group cohesiveness. The obtained results indicate that there were no significant differences in group cohesiveness among male and female volleyball players from Bosnia and Herzegovina in relation to their player position. Table 5. Analysis of differences between groups of players with different player contribution according to the level of cohesion GROUP OF PLAYERS VAR ATG-S ATG-T GI-S GI-T THE SMALLEST CONTRIBUTION N-26 MODERATE CONTRIBUTION N-64 THE GREATEST CONTRIBUTION N-28 M 4,43 4,51 4,39 SD,74,53,78 M 3,93 4,07 3,95 SD,80,80 1,03 M 3,62 3,84 3,72 SD 1,05,90,87 M 3,61 3,78 3,76 SD,93,70,79 H P= 0,14 0,93 0,61 0,64 0,83 0, ,82 LEGEND: M mean, SD standard deviation, H coefficient of the Kruskal-Wallis test, P= level of statistical significance, * statistically significant difference Based on the results shown in Table 5, it can be concluded that there were no statistically significant differences between groups of players of different quality. However, it can be observed that players of medium quality had the highest values of cohesion in all variables. Discussion With the purpose of determining the characteristics of cohesiveness in volleyball teams (players aged 14-19) in relation to gender, role within the team and player contribution, and based on the results obtained in this research, it can be concluded that there were no statistically significant differences between the subjects. Female volleyball players were oriented more toward the achievement of social aspects of cohesiveness, while male volleyball players gave greater importance to the group performance of sports tasks. Considering that the research included young male and female players (aged 14-19), i.e. teams whose members have not been together for a long period, the individuals desire for socializing and group achievement might still be greater that their perception of team cohesiveness. Indirectly, subjects indicated their attraction to team cohesiveness was higher than their current evaluation of cohesiveness. Medium quality players expressed the highest values of cohesion, which can be explained by the assumption that certain players who least contribute to the team s success are dissatisfied with their status within the team, which can further damage the relationship with teammates; and, on the other hand, dissatisfaction in the most successful players can be caused by the fact that most of the other players do not perform their tasks during the game on the same level as they do. Almost all items assessing individual s attraction to team cohesiveness (ATG-S and ATG-T scales) begin with I or for me, while the items assessing team cohesiveness (GI-S and GI-T scales) begin with we or this team. Given the fact that this survey was anonymous, the subjects might have been more free and honest in expressing their attitudes when these were not related to personal attraction. In future research, it would be interesting to determine the relations of each component of group cohesiveness and teams success in competitions. In order to gain the most objective image about this relation, it would be advisable to gather information about team cohesiveness on several occasions during one competitive season (e.g., at the beginning and at the end of the preparation period, during the competition period, etc.). The following methods can be suggested to coaches with the purpose of further improvement of team cohesiveness: to inform each player with his/her teammates tasks, to set demanding but attainable 463

8 goals, and to encourage the feeling of pride for performing the agreed tasks in the team s playing concept well, for successful collective outplaying of the opponents and for the success of the team as a whole. It is important for each player to understand that his/her participation in decision making affects both his/her personal status and the whole team. Each player must learn his/her role in all phases of the game and understand its importance. The awareness of the importance of one s own role provides a player with a feeling of being a part of the team and encourages unity within the team. To encourage the quality of cooperation through situational exercises in which mutual assistance in defense and offense is required. In doing so, it is necessary for players to understand (and accept) that collective assistance means that all players help each other, and to emphasize successful task performance during the game (to emphasize the periods of quality play), even in case of defeat. Positive messages always create a sense of satisfaction and encourage group cohesion. References 1. Agelonidis, Y. (2004). Fluctuations of different aspects of group cohesion across a competitive season in volleyball teams. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 46 (6), Carron, A.V., Widmeyer, W.N., & Brawley, L.R. (1985). The development of an instrument to assess cohesion in sport teams: The group environment questionnaire. Journal of Sports Psychology, 7, Carron, A.V., Colman, M.M., Wheeler, J., & Stevens, D. (2002). Cohesion and performance in sport: A Meta analysis, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20, Cox, R. (2005). Online education as institutional myth: rituals and realities at community colleges. Teachers College Record, 107 (8), Ntoumanis, N., & Aggelonidis, Y. (2004). A psychometric evaluation of the Group Environment Questionnaire in a sample of elite and regional level Greek volleyball players. European Physical Education Review, 10 (3), Paskevich, D.M. (1995). Conceptual and measurement factors of collective efficacy in its relationship to cohesion and performance outcome. Master s thesis, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada. 7. Paskevich, D.M., Brawley, L.R., Dorsch, K.D., & Widmeyer, W.N. (1999). Relationship between collective efficacy and cohesion: Conceptual and measurement issues. Group Dynamics (3), Spink, K. S. (1990). Group cohesion and collective efficacy of volleyball teams. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, (12),

9 RELATIONS BETWEEN SPORTS MOTIVATION AND PLAYER POSITIONS OF YOUNG FEMALE VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS Boris Milavić, Luka Pezelj, Damir Jurko and Andrea Čelić Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Croatia Abstract The main goal of this research was to establish relationship between motivation for sport and player positions of young female volleyball players. This research was conducted on 84 female volleyball players from Dalmatia, aged between 14 and 19. For establishing motivation in sport, a questionnaire for orientation motivation in sport (TEOSQ) was used as well as a questionnaire of sport motivation (SMS). The TEOSQ (Duda 1989.) consisted of 13 questions: 6 questions estimated ego orientation (EO), and 7 questions estimated task orientation (TO). The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) consists of 7 subscales that measure 3 types of Intrinsic Motivation (IM), 3 forms of regulation for Extrinsic Motivation (EM), and Amotivation. It was determined by a KS test that all the variables (except the motivational one) were normally distributed. The descriptive statistics has determined that the volleyball players have shown more IM and TO. The correlation analysis has determined a high positive correlation of the IM and TO, as well as a medium positive correlation of the EM and IM. A medium negative correlation of amotivation and IM and amotivation and TO was acquired, as well as small positive relation of the EM with EO and TO. The T-test did not show statistically significant differences in the analysed variables between older (N=30) and younger (N=54) volleyball players. Analysing the variance, the differences between each player position regarding the sports motivation were not found. Keywords: correlation, player roles, task/ego-orientation, volleyball Introduction Motivation is what drives us, i.e. motivates to a certain behavior, but also maintains that behavior. It is the key in understanding behavioral patterns, as well as in estimating the intensity and direction of behavior. It can be internal (intrinsic) and external (extrinsic). Internal motivation can be defined as the inner reason for participating in a certain activity because of the enjoyment achieved by the activity, whereas external (extrinsic) motivation implies that participation in a certain activity is controlled by external reasons such as trophies, money, fame In the achievement theory, an individual can adopt one or two different concepts of successfulness. These concepts are further formed through environmental influences. Cervello, Escarti, & Guzman, (2007) state that every athlete wants to demonstrate his/her abilities and be successful. However, not all athletes define ability the same way. The first group includes athletes who are oriented towards learning, i.e. improvement within a certain activity (intrinsically oriented). They set goals with regard to their past performance and they are motivated by improvement in a certain sports task. The second type of athletes defines success and inefficiency by social comparison. They want to demonstrate to themselves their own superiority in relation to other athletes (extrinsically oriented). Also, motivation determines the direction of our behavior and its termination (Barić, & Horha, 2006). According to the social-cognitive approach to achievement motivation, two types of goal modeling in sports can be distinguished: task orientation and ego orientation (orientation towards the outcome, i.e. result) which are mutually orthogonal (Barić, & Horga, 2006). For a task oriented individual, success is personal progress in acquisition and mastering of skills. An ego oriented individual has an external reference frame for estimating success and he/she expects a reward for his/her effort: these individuals value result, grades, money, success, being better in 465

10 comparison to others. They build their competence by comparison to others. They consider success to be a consequence of their superiority and not of their effort. Weinberg (2008) states that motivation in sports can be defined simply as the direction and intensity of one s effort in sports. Motivation has been repeatedly reported as the key element of success in sports (Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002; in Vallerand, 2007) and the key element of exerciser s perseverance with an exercise regimen (Wilson, & Rodgers, 2007; in Vallerand, 2007). In 1978, Harter (according to Cox, 2005) suggested the achievement motivation theory which is based on athlete s perception of personal competence. All individuals are naturally motivated for skill acquisition in all areas of human activity, including sports. It is usually considered that young athletes who have already passed one or more selection processes in their sport, or have been included into a specialized sports training during their training process, are highly motivated for sports. By revising the abovementioned papers, it can be seen that a great deal of attention has been paid to the manner of determining the structure and type of motivation, while perceived sports competence is generally tested by short scales, with average metric characteristics or even with a single item. The aim of this research is to determine the relations of sports motivation in relation to age and player position of young female volleyball players. Method The subject sample consisted of 84 female volleyball players from volleyball clubs in Dalmatia (Sinj, Split, Makarska, Kaštela, Zadar, Vodice), born between 1992 and Parents and coaches of all participants gave their consent for participation in this testing. The participants were girls who are actively involved in volleyball. Two questionnaires were used to establish motivation for sports: Sport motivation questionnaire (SMS), constructed by Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuscon, Briere, & Blais, (1995), including SMSintrinsic motivation, SMS-extrinsic motivation and SMS-amotivation; and Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ), constructed by Chi, & Duda (1995), consisting of 13 Likert-type items with the five-point measuring scale for testing extrinsic-intrinsic orientation of sport motivation. The items were translated, then adjusted to available versions previously applied by experts, and then adapted for application among youth sports population. With the purpose of determining the player specialization of each volleyball player, one of the items in the questionnaire required players to answer what position they usually played in their team. The player was to choose one of the five player positions offered: setter, opposite, wing-tritter, middle blocker 1 st tempo attacker and libero. The testing procedure was conducted within volleyball club facilities just before training practices. The surveyor gave short preceding motivational and work instructions, and stressed the anonymity of the testing. In order to determine the metric characteristics for validation on a sample of female volleyball players, reliability was calculated Cronbach alpha coefficient of reliability, as well as sensitivity measures of normality (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test) and shape of results distribution (Skew and Kurt). By descriptive analysis, the following parameters were established: mean (M), standard deviation (SD), and result range (MIN and MAX). Pearson s correlation coefficient was used to determine the relations between measures of sports motivation. T-test for independent samples was applied to determine the differences between volleyball players of different age according to the level of sports motivation. Value of T-test (t) and the level of significance (p) were also presented. ANOVA variance analysis was used to determine the differences between volleyball players in different player positions according to the level of sports motivation and the following parameters were presented: group means (M), standard deviation of groups (SD), F value (F), level of significance (p), and possible determination of significance between the groups by Fisher LSD test. 466

11 Results Table 1. Means and metric characteristics of sports motivation scales VAR M SD MIN MAX SKEW KURT K-S ALPHA AMOTIVATION 7,17 4, ,67 1,92 0,258* 0,77 IM_TO EXPERIENCE 21,50 4, ,69-0,52 0,128 0,71 STIMULATION IM _TO KNOW 19,21 5, ,64 0,29 0,108 0,84 IM ACCOMPLISH 20,73 5, ,89 0,38 0,156* 0,84 EM_ EXTERNAL REGULATION 13,25 5, ,42-0,39 0,101 0,77 EM_INTROJECTE D 19,89 5, ,33-0,50 0,090 0,66 EM_IDENTIFIED 17,74 4, ,01-0,17 0,109 0,60 SMS_INT_MOT 61,44 14, ,86 0,29 0,122 0,89 SMS_EXT_MOT 50,88 11, ,29-0,40 0,070 0,67 TEQ_TASK 29,38 4, ,30 2,25 0,144 0,88 TEQ EGO 19,35 5, ,20-0,80 0,094 0,85 LEGEND: M mean, SD standard deviation, MIN minimum result, MAX maximum result, SKEW symmetry of results distribution result, KURT shape of results distribution result, K-S result of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and statistical significance ate level of 5 %, ALPHA Cronbach alpha coefficient of reliability,*- variables with the KS-test value higher than the threshold value for the sample of 85 subjects (0,145). By analyzing Table1, it can be observed that the reliability coefficient of variables can be seen in the range from 0,60 for the EM-identified variable up to 0,89 for the SMS INT MOT variable. In the research conducted by Pelletier et al. (1995) the lowest reliability coefficient was also obtained in the EM-IDENTIFIED variable which indicates that rephrasing of the items for this variable might be required. Generally, variables for assessing internal motivation in the SMS questionnaire have greater reliability than the variables for assessing external motivation. Variables assessing task and ego orientation have a high level of reliability. By using a KS-test, it has been established that 2 variables were not normally distributed (AMOTIVATION and IM TO KNOW). That is why results in these variables must be taken with a grain of salt. After analyzing the descriptive indicators it can be seen that female volleyball players averagely have a low level of amotivation and a below average level of external regulation which represents the least desirable form of external motivation and which entails that athletes participate in certain sports because of the external factors (money, acknowledgment ). At the same time, female volleyball players have above average values in all variables assessing internal motivation. They are also characterized by high values of task orientation, and moderate values of ego orientation. Such structure of motivation and orientation which is dominated by inner drives for playing volleyball (enjoyment, learning, improvement ) can be characterized as desirable. Distribution of results in the amotivation variable is extremely positively asymmetric which means that most female volleyball players (over 60) had very low values in this variable, even though a small number of female volleyball players expressed high values in this variable (they are not motivated for playing volleyball). Distribution of results in the variable assessing internal motivation in sports does not deviate significantly from normal distribution, although negative asymmetry of results can be noticed, i.e. most female volleyball players have above average values in this variable. This is a positive thing because participation in sports out of internal reasons (enjoyment, learning new skills, skill improvement) results in positive emotions and behavior of athletes (Pelletier et al., 1995). Results of female volleyball players in the variable assessing external motivation in sports are normally distributed, i.e. most players have average values in this variable. Out of the 3 components constituting this variable, female volleyball players have the lowest average values in the one variable which is self-regulated to the smallest extent, i.e. which is highly influenced by external factors (EXTERNAL REGULATION), which is a positive thing. 467

12 Values of KS-test in the variable assessing task orientation are just below the threshold value (0,145) for the observed subject sample. The distribution is negatively asymmetric and even 55 out of 84 players have values over 4,0 in this variable (a five-point measuring scale). Only a small number of female volleyball players have below average values in task orientation, and it can be assumed that these are the same players who have above average results on the amotivation scale. Results in the variable assessing ego orientation are also normally distributed with mean value M=3,22. Table 2. Correlation of sports motivation measures VAR AMOTIVATION SMS_INT_MOT SMS_EXT_MOT TEQ_TASK TEQ EGO AMOTIVATION 1,00 -,46**,08 -,34**,07 SMS_INT_MOT -,46** 1,00,44**,69**,00 SMS_EXT_MOT,08,44** 1,00,28*,29** TEQ_TASK -,34**,69**,28* 1,00,11 TEQ EGO,07,00,29**,11 1,00 LEGEND: * Significance of the correlation coefficient on a level p <.05, ** Significance of the correlation coefficient on a level p <.01 Female volleyball players who had a lower result in the SMS intrinsic motivation test (Table 2) had a higher result in the amotivation variable. Amotivation also has a statistically significant correlation to the task orientation variable. Correlation between internal motivation and task orientation (0,69) is positive, strong and statistically significant. Therefore, female volleyball players who have higher results in the internal motivation also have higher results in task orientation. Furthermore, female volleyball players who have a high result in external motivation, also have a high result in ego orientation. Table 3. Descriptive data and testing of differences according to sports motivation VAR YOUNGER (N-54) OLDER (N-30) M SD M SD t-test P= AMOTIVATION 6,81 4,15 7,80 5,02-0,97 0,34 IM_TO EXPERIENCE STIMULATION 21,48 4,96 21,53 4,33-0,05 0,96 IM _TO KNOW 19,28 6,19 19,10 4,44 0,14 0,89 IM _ACCOMPLISH 20,74 5,51 20,70 4,75 0,03 0,97 EM_ EXTERNAL REGULATION 13,91 5,91 12,07 4,59 1,48 0,14 EM_INTROJECTED 20,20 5,04 19,33 5,11 0,75 0,45 EM_IDENTIFIED 17,93 4,85 17,40 4,75 0,48 0,63 SMS_INT_MOT 61,50 15,24 61,33 12,03 1,61 0,17 SMS_EXT_MOT 52,04 12,63 48,80 10,48 1,45 0,28 TEQ_TASK 28,98 5,10 30,10 3,50-1,07 0,29 TEQ EGO 19,22 5,96 19,57 5,17-0,27 0,79 LEGEND: M mean, SD standard deviation, t-test significance, * statistically significant difference t-test coefficient, P= level of statistical Table 3 shows basic descriptive indicators (mean and standard deviation) separately for younger (born between 1995 and 1997) and older (born between 1992 and 1994) female volleyball players. Differences between the two groups of players in each variable were tested by t-test. There were no statistically significant differences found between younger and older players in any variable. This indicates that motivational structure in young female volleyball players is age independent, and that it is influenced by other factors (e.g. personality traits of each athlete, environmental influence). 468

13 Table 4. Variance analysis of groups of players playing in different positions according to the level of sports motivation PLAYERS POSITION VAR WING- MIDDLE SETTER OPPOSITE TRITTER BLOCKER LIBERO F P= M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD AMOTIVATION 9,06 5,80 6,43 4,11 6,33 3,75 7,00 4,38 7,38 4,07 1,01 0,41 IM_TO EXPERIENCE 19,88 5,14 21,57 4,52 22,86 4,88 21,24 4,45 21,88 4,67 0,94 0,45 STIMULATION IM _TO KNOW 18,25 5,87 20,64 4,89 19,43 5,60 18,48 5,99 20,38 5,58 0,54 0,71 IM _ACCOMPLISH 18,38 5,66 22,00 3,28 21,67 5,82 20,04 5,51 22,88 2,95 1,69 0,16 EM_ EXTERNAL REGULATION 11,63 5,21 14,71 5,17 13,33 5,07 13,20 6,54 13,88 4,73 0,61 0,66 EM_INTROJECTED 19,44 4,10 21,36 5,37 20,57 5,21 18,96 5,73 19,38 3,62 0,64 0,63 EM_IDENTIFIED 17,81 4,43 17,50 4,01 17,24 6,24 17,64 4,79 19,63 2,26 0,37 0,83 SMS_INT_MOT 56,50 15,07 64,21 11,33 63,95 15,07 59,76 14,60 65,13 11,73 1,02 0,40 SMS_EXT_MOT 48,88 11,56 53,57 10,72 51,14 13,16 49,80 13,10 52,88 8,66 0,39 0,82 TEQ_TASK 29,31 4,16 28,29 5,64 30,14 5,14 29,16 4,32 30,13 3,27 0,40 0,81 TEQ EGO 21,56 6,12 18,21 5,18 18,43 5,17 19,96 5,65 17,38 6,46 1,22 0,31 LEGEND: M mean, SD standard deviation, F coefficient of variance analysis, P= level of statistical significance, * statistically significant difference Results of the variance analysis in each variable for assessing internal and external motivation, as well as task and ego orientation of female volleyball players playing in different positions are presented in Table 4. There were no statistically significant differences found in any variable. After analyzing the descriptive indicators, it can be noticed that players in setter position have a more expressed amotivation and ego orientation, and less expressed internal motivation than players in other positions. Even though these differences are not statistically significant, they imply that setters are less motivated for volleyball than their teammates in other player positions. Table 5. Coefficients of significance of the Fisher s LSD test of mean differences between groups of female volleyball players in different positions according to the IM_ACCOMPLISH level of expression. PLAYER Middle blocker Setter Opposite Wing-tritter POSITION 1 st Libero tempo attacker Setter 0,06 0,06 0,31 0,047* Opposite 0,06 0,85 0,26 0,70 Wing-tritter 0,06 0,85 0,29 0,57 Middle blocker 1 st 0,31 0,26 0,29 0,18 tempo attacker Libero 0,047* 0,70 0,57 0,18 LEGEND:* statistically significant difference By post-hoc variance analysis (Table 5) in the IM-_ACCOMPLISH variable, statistically significant differences were found between setter and libero players. The IM-_ACCOMPLISH variable refers to the pleasure and enjoyment felt during successful performance of certain tasks in sport, i.e. when demanding exercises are mastered (techniques, tactical variants ). Here, libero players have a statistically higher level of motivation than setters. Discussion The analysis of metric characteristics of variables assessing motivation and orientation of female volleyball players has shown that variables assessing external motivation have lower reliability. This reliability is overall somewhat lower in the original French, as well as in the English version of the questionnaire. In these versions of the questionnaire, variables assessing external motivation also had a lower level of reliability than variables assessing internal motivation. This calls for refinement of the questionnaire in this segment. 469

14 Female volleyball players on average have a desirable structure of motivation and orientation which is dominated by internal motivation and task orientation. High positive correlation of internal motivation and task orientation was found by correlation analysis, which was expected, but there was a small positive correlation found between external motivation and ego orientation. Higher mean values of ego orientation were found in some other research studies involving young female volleyball players (e.g. Grgantov, Gabrić, & Miletić, 2008). The anonymity during the testing in this research might have influenced the volleyball players to express their ego orientation more freely in comparison to the research conducted by Grgantov et al. in which the testing was not anonymous. Moreover, a somewhat higher average age of female volleyball players in this research might have also influenced this difference because teams of volleyball players who are older than 15 participate more in competitions than female volleyball players under 15. The highest values of ego orientation found in setters are surprising. The authors consider this to be a negative thing for game performance in this position because the role of the setter is to serve and organize the play of her teammates, and the excessive need of the setter to stand out does not fit the requirements of her role during the game. High importance of this player role ( the brains of the team ), combined with rare performance of the most attractive volleyball element the spike, might have influenced such motivational structure. The reason why libero players have a high desire for mastering difficult playing tasks might be that they are closely specialized for serve reception and field defense, where reception of power serves and field defense is considered one of the most demanding volleyball elements. On the other hand, even though setters are required to demonstrate high precision when performing the overhead pass, this element is still in its structure more simple than most of the other volleyball elements (e.g. spiking, blocking or field defense). Given that t-test and variance analysis showed statistically significant differences neither according to age nor player role, it can be concluded that this structure of motivation and orientation is independent of age and player role. In future research, it might be interesting to analyze the relation between the structure of motivation and orientation and situational efficiency in volleyball. It would also be interesting to determine if there were any differences in motivational structure in volleyball according to gender. References 1. Barić, R., & Horga, S. (2006). Psychometric properties of the Croatian version of Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (CTEOSQ). Kinesiology, 38(2), Cervello, E.M., Escarti, A., & Guzman, J.F (2007). Youth sport dropout from the achievement goal theory. Psicothema, 19(1), Chi, L., & Duda, J.L. (1995). Multi-Sample Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport American Alliance for Health, 66(2), Cox, R. (2005). Online education as institutional myth: rituals and realities at community colleges. Teachers College Record, 107(8), Grgantov, Z., Gabrić, I., & Miletić, ð. (2008). Intrinzična i ekstrinzična orijentacija kod mladih odbojkašica. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference Contemporary Kinesiology. Mostar Pelletier, L.G., Fortier, M.S., Vallerand, R.J., Tuscon, K.M., Briere, N.M.,& Blais, M.R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports The Sport Motivation Scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, (17), Vallerand, R.J. (2007). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport and Physical Activity. In Handbook of Sports Psychology. (Eds.) Tenenbaum G., Eklund R.C. John Wiley & Sons, Weinberg, R.S. (2009). Motivation. In Sport Psychology Handbook of Sports Medicine and Science. (Eds.) Brewer B.W. International Olympic Committee. Wiley-Blackwell,

15 ATHLETES COMPETITIVE EXPERIENCE AS A DETERMINANT OF THE CONFORMITY Igor Vučković¹, Aleksandar Gadžić², Radenko Dobraš¹ and Proko Dragosavljević¹ ¹Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska ²Football Academy, Belgrade, Serbia Abstract The object of the present study was conformity as a behavioural manner toward the coach and club management. The study aim was to determine differences in the conformity degree between less experienced and more experienced athletes divided into 4 subsamples: individual female athletes, individual male athletes, team sport female athletes and team sport male athletes. The sample was made of 160 athletes, both genders. The study instrument was the Conformity Scale, (The Conformity Scale; Mehrabian, & Stefl, 1995), used and confirmed in 2 earlier researches by Vučković et al. (2009, 2010). The data were analysed by non-parametric Mann-Whitney test. Upon the analysis, we confirmed following: Individual female athletes and individual male athletes are conformists toward coach to a great extent. There are no significant differences between less experienced and more experienced athletes for both genders. Prevailing opinion among these athletes is that their successful performance greatly depends on their good relations with the coach and club management. Less experienced team sport female athletes are bigger conformists toward the club management. It seems that years of sport experience are necessary in order to clearly see the difference between the roles of the coach and the club management. Team sport male athletes expressed somewhat different opinion compared to the other 3 subsamples. More experienced male athletes showed less conformity toward the coach then the club management. Probably team sport male athletes were very satisfied with current club management; therewith have grounds for their attitudes toward the club management. Keywords: conformity, athletes, coaches, club management. Introduction Distinguished Serbian sport sociologist Koković (2000, 82) claims that conformity is the most common attachment to the socialization process for athletes. The conformity represents an adjustment to attitudes, opinions and behavioural forms and certain standards of the group that one belongs to. Conformists easily adapt to sport team and club discipline. They are favourites of authoritarian and tenacious coaches. Uncertain, intellectually unformed, frustrated, authoritarian persons with lower group social status are more susceptible to conformity. Moreover, coaches are united in the opinion that every sports team must have clearly defined social relationships between players, coaches and club management. Marjanović (1995) has studied conformity of 40 girls and 40 boys, students of Belgrade high schools employing Asch s technique. Analysis of variance showed that the degree of conformity was significantly higher in gender homogenous groups than the heterogeneous ones. The highest degree of the conformity was noted among men in regard to instructed male participants, than girls with regard to instructed female participants, followed by girls in regard to instructed male participants and the least degree of the conformity was present in males in regard to instructed female participants. Atkinson (2002) has investigated for three years reasons why Canadian women undergo tattooing. He concluded that one of the main reasons for it was the pressure from the social environment. Conducting research on 149 students, Niemand (2006), based on 11 items Lickert scale, found that women were greater conformists than men in terms of life and racial prejudices. He stated that the majority of authors came to the conclusion that women were bigger conformists. Joksimović and Matić (2006) examined value orientations between 628 adolescents, and they measured degree of the conformity by scale that contained 471

16 statements of the inevitability to accept the opinions of the majority, the importance of group fitting and adjusting to the demands and expectations made by others. Positive relationship between the conformity and altruistic value orientation was explained by student-conformists desire to be popular and accepted. Conformity was more evident to students whose parents had lower educational levels. Such parents insisted on the respect for the authority and adoption of conformity values. Some studies of athletes conformity indicated that players-newcomers quickly adjust their behaviour to older players and the team leader (In: Carron, 1980). Younger adolescents and their parents have great expectations from coaches (Martin et al., 1999). They think that coaches should be educated, competent, ambitious, hard working, etc. The authors conclude that young players have low levels of the conformity because of: a) their relatively short sport experience and b) parents involvement in the sport activities. Sherman et al. (2000) have explored the opinions of Australian athletes about coach s preferable behaviour." Among the other things, the authors concluded that female athletes had more tolerance for coach s autocracy, in other words they were bigger conformists than male athletes. After talks, he had with doped athletes, Mendoza (2002) claimed that a certain percentage of athletes used doping because they have seen other athletes used it too. Jowett and Cockerill (2003) made an analysis of the relationships between Olympic medal winners and their coaches, and they consider athletes readiness for complete concordance with the coach s training rules and principles indicators of positive conformity," because such relationship had led to the success. Vučković and Gadžić (2009) noted the high degree of the conformity in basketball players of Bosnia and Herzegovina toward coaches, and moderately elevated toward the club management. They found surprising (and disappointing!) players opinion to approve the club management interference with coaches professional and educational expertise. Conducting further research on the relations between basketball players social characteristics and their conformity toward the coach, Vučković et al. (2010) found no significant relations between the majority of basketball players social characteristics and their conformity toward the coach and club management, which indicates that some other factors were responsible for high conformity of the basketball players. The authors expressed astonishment with such findings because a number of authors claimed that athletes conformity was in a large proportion influenced by social factors. Finally, they concluded that the primary determinant of players conformity could be coaches quality (their managerial style, knowledge, experience, reputation, etc.). Group pressure should not be ignored either, which consequently results in the individual conformity. Voelker et al. (2011) have analysed the experiences of ex-captains from high school basketball teams (7 male, 6 female). All participants stated that they received little or no practical advices from coaches who could help them in performing captain duties. Their behaviour was based on previous life experiences, such are: a) observations of predecessor captain (conformity) and b) learning through trial and error. Steinfeldt et al. (2011), examined conformity among 143 female athletes and non athletes according to the gender norms in sports, sport participation and own body perception. Results shown that female athletes and non athletes do not differ in conformity degree to female norms, however, female athletes had higher levels of the conformity to traditionally male norms," such are: high desire for winning, taking risks, aggressiveness, strength. Definitely, considering coach-athlete relationships, a number of researches have shown a high degree of the conformity among athletes, regardless individual or team sports (In: Wildman, 2006). Moreover, Hoppis (2012) claims the presence of radical pressure from coaches and club managements. His research showed that coaches (69.5%) and colleague-competitors (63.5%) of college wrestlers always or sometimes make pressure on athlete to compete while injured. Study aim was to determine differences in the conformity degree between more experienced and less experienced athletes within the following groups: 1) individual female athletes, 2) individual male athletes, 3) team sport female athletes and 4) team sport male athletes. Method Participants The participants in this study were 160 athletes from 8 different sports. Out of that number 79 were females and 81 males. Eighty one athlete competes in individual sports (athletics, tennis, karate, and boxing) and 79 in team sports (basketball, football, handball, volleyball). Athletes average age was 25 years and 2 months. 472

17 In accordance to the criterion competitive experience (number of years an athlete spent in a certain spot) we made following subsamples: 1a) less experienced individual female athletes, 1b) more experienced individual female athletes; 2a) less experienced individual male athletes, 2b) more experienced individual male athletes; 3a) less experienced team sport female athletes, 3b) more experienced team sport female athletes; 4a) less experienced team sport male athletes and 4b) more experienced team sport male athletes. Instruments Modified Conformity Scale was used as the research instrument (The Conformity Scale; Mehrabian, & Stefl, 1995). The modification considered a lingual adaptation of statements, without change of its essence. Internal reliability of the modified conformity scale was: subsample 1, α=.69; subsample 2, α=.58; subsample 3, α=.57 and subsample 4, α=.59. In previous research by Vučković et al. (2009, 2010), where the same research instrument has been used, reliability was α=.74. Conformity related statements toward coach were: 1) Coach is the team leader and therefore, should be respected (Leader); 2) It is a good thing when coach consults athletes regarding certain questions (Conspl); 3) Coach is under a lot of stress, so even when he makes a mistake, he should be understood and forgiven (Coastr); 4) All coach s ideas should be realized obediently (Coaide). Statements referring to conformity toward club management were: 1) Club management runs the club and therefore, should be respected (Manres); 2) Club management is benevolent; It's only interest is the prosperity of the club (Manben); 3) Club management should have an influence on the coach s professional work (content of the trainings, players treatment by the coach, etc.) (Manwor); 4) Opinion of the club management regarding professional issues (player s quality, player s competitive performance level, etc.) must be respected (Opman). Athletes have evaluated their agreement with provided statements on a five-point Likert scale, scale, where point 1 stands for strongly disagree, point 2 partially disagree, point 3 "unsure," point 4 partially agree and point 5 strongly agree Dependent variables were: 1) type of sport (individual or team sport), 2) gender and 3) competition experience (less and more or equal to 10 years). Procedure Questionnaire procedure has been conducted in a specially selected room within training hall. Apart from the interviewer and athletes, nobody else attended procedure. Non-parametric Mann-Whitney was applied in order to test hypotheses of mean differences between groups divided into subsamples. Results Table 1. Differences between less experienced and more experienced individual female athletes in the conformity degree Leader Conspl Coastr Coaide Manres Manben Manwor Opman Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) It is notable from table 1 that statistically significant difference exists between the group of athletes in the statement Club management should have an influence on the coach s professional work (content of the trainings, players treatment by the coach, etc.) (Manwor) (p.<05). For the remaining statements, we found no significant differences. Table 2. Descriptive statistics of less experienced and more experienced individual female athletes in the conformity degree GROUP N M Leader Conspl Coastr

18 Table 2. Descriptive statistics of less experienced and more experienced individual female athletes in the conformity degree (CONT) GROUP N M Coaide Manres Manben Manwor Opman Legend: GROUP 1 less experienced individual female athletes GROUP 2 more experienced individual female athletes N Number of athletes in groups M Mean value of the statements on a five point Likert scale The results from table 2 show that examined athletes are bigger conformists toward the coach (column M, first 4 statements) than to the club management. Table 3. Differences between less experienced and more experienced individual male athletes in the conformity degree Leader Conspl Coastr Coaide Manres Manben Manwor Opman Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) Table 3 implies there are no statistically significant differences between the groups of athletes, except in the statement: Club management is benevolent; its only interest is the prosperity of the club (Manben). Table 4. Descriptive statistics of less experienced and more experienced individual male athletes in the conformity degree GROUP N M Leader Conspl Coastr Coaide Manres Manben Manwor Opman Legend: GROUP 1 less experienced individual male athletes GROUP 2 more experienced individual male athletes N Number of athletes in groups M Mean value of the statements on a five point Likert scale 474

19 As concluded from table 2 similar notions apply for players of both groups, shown in table 4, with obviously higher conformity toward the coach than to the club management. Table 5. Differences between less experienced and more experienced team sport female athletes in the conformity degree Leader Conspl Coastr Coaide Manres Manben Manwor Opman Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) Table 5 shows there are significant differences between less experienced and more experienced team sport female athletes in the conformity degree in the statements: Club management should have an influence on the coach s professional work (content of the trainings, players treatment by the coach, etc.) (Manwor) (p.<01) and Opinion of the club management regarding professional issues (player s quality, player s competitive performance level, etc.) must be respected (Opman) (p.<05). Table 6. Descriptive statistics of less experienced and more experienced team sport female athletes in the conformity degree GROUP N M Leader Conspl Coastr Coaide Manres Manben Manwor Opman Legend: GROUP 1 less experienced team sport female athletes GROUP 2 more experienced team sport female athletes N Number of athletes in groups M Mean value of the statements on a five point Likert scale Just like in the previous two comparisons, this subsample shows more conformity toward the coach than to the club management (Table 6). Table 7. Differences between less experienced and more experienced team sport male athletes in the conformity degree Leader Conspl Coastr Coaide Manres Manben Manwor Opman Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) Table 7 reveals the existence of significant differences within this subsample in the majority of the statements: Coach is under a lot of stress, so even when he makes a mistake, he should be understood and forgiven (Coastr); (p. <01); All coach s ideas should be realized obediently (Coaide) (p. <05); Club management runs the club and therefore should be respected (Manres) (p. <05); Club management is benevolent; It's only interest is the prosperity of the club (Manben) (p. <05); Opinion of the club management regarding professional issues (player s quality, player s competitive performance level, etc.) must be respected (Opman) (p.<05). 475

20 Table 8. Descriptive statistics of less experienced and more experienced team sport male athletes in the conformity degree GROUP N M Leader Conspl Coastr Coaide Manres Manben Manwor Opman Legend: GROUP 1 less experienced team sport male athletes GROUP 2 more experienced team sport male athletes N Number of athletes in groups M Mean value of the statements on a five point Likert scale From table 8 it is obvious that for subsample of team sport male athletes are in less conformity mood toward the club management than 3 previously analysed subsamples. Discussion Considering all 4 subsamples, it could be concluded that examined athletes are bigger conformists toward the coach than to the club management. These findings are very similar to the results of Vučković and Gadžić (2009). Investigating senior basketball players conformity, they noticed a very high level of the confidence in coach and readiness to undergo his psycho-physical demands. Moreover, this is in accordance with the opinion of the famous North American sport sociologist (Carron, A. Et al., 2002a, 2002b, 2003, 2005), who claimed that sport team success, among the other things, depends on athletes conformity to the coach. Making comparisons between successful and unsuccessful American teams at the Atlanta Olympics Gould et al. (1999) have explored the reasons of failure for certain teams. Besides lack of team cohesion, experience and mental preparation, the authors suggest that low level conformity toward the coach contributed to weaker results. Athletes who were not ready to completely obey coach and his program made poorer results. In their research of athletes inclination to individuality or collectivism, McCutcheon and Ashe (1999) found that individualists - persons that devalue a collective effort to success, underrate the importance of relations inside the team and prefer a high level of personal autonomy and self-sustaining. However, as for the differences between younger and older athletes in conformity, authors yielded contrasting results. Martin et al. (1999) concluded that senior players are bigger conformists. Past research, summarized by Carron (1980) indicate that younger players are bigger conformists. Opposite to these findings, Vučković and Gadžić (2009) did not find statistically significant differences between older and younger basketball players in their conformity level. Everything being taken into account, individual female athletes are to a large extent conformists toward the coach. There are no significant differences between less experienced and more experienced female athletes. Apparently, throughout the entire sport career of female athletes prevails the belief that positive relationships with the coach and club management are essential for sport success. The same goes for individual male athletes. Their stance that joint effort ought to be made in striving for success is quite obvious. While they do not differ in the conformity toward the coach, less experienced team sport female athletes are bigger conformists toward the club management. Evidently, they misunderstood the role of 476

21 the club management. It is essential to be involved in sports for a number of years in order to distinguish the coach s role of the club management one. Team sport male athletes showed somewhat different opinion comparable to the other 3 subsamples. More experienced male athletes are less conformists toward the coach and bigger to the club management. Most likely, group of these athletes are very satisfied with the current club management, therewith have grounds for their attitudes toward the club management. Keeping in mind opinions of the world-leading sports sociologists, it could be said that high level of athletes conformity toward the coach was completely expected and justified one. Without athletes readiness to follow the coach s way of work there is no success. Moreover, the findings of this study indirectly imply the coach s quality. Apparently, the coaches of all 4 examined subsamples have high professional, educational, working and ethical qualities therefore deserve conformity from their athletes. It would be very interesting to offer questionnaire used in the present study to the population of athletes from other European countries. Such comparisons would provide reliable answers, whether competitive experience contributes to the athletes' conformity or not. References 1. Atkinson, M. (2002). Pretty in Ink: Conformity, Resistance, and Negotiation in Women s Tattooing. Sex Roles, Carron, A. (1980). Social psychology of sport. Ithaca: Movement Publications. 3. Carron, A., Beauchamp, M., Bray, S., & Eys, M. (2002a). Role ambiguity, role efficacy and role performance: Multidimensional and Mediational Relationships within Interdependent Sport Teams. Group Dynamics: Theory, Res. Practice, 6, Carron, A., Bray, S., & Eys, M. (2002b). Team cohesion and team success in sport. Journal of Sports Sciences. 20(8). 5. Carron, A., Eys, M., Bray, S., & Beauchamp, M.R. (2003). Role ambiguity and athlete satisfaction. Journal of Sports Sciences., Vol. 21: Carron, A., Eys, M., Beauchamp, M., & Bray, S. (2005). Athletes Perceptions of the Sources of Role Ambiguity. Small Group Research, Vol. 36, No. 4, Gould, D., Guinan, D., Greenleaf, C., Medbery, R., & Peterson, K. (1999). Factors affecting Olympic performance: Perceptions of athletes and coaches from more and less successful teams. The Sport Psychologist, 13, Hoppis, S. A. (2012). Competing while injured: what wrestlers do and why. Мaster s thesis. Faculty of the graduate school, University of Minnesota. 9. Joksimović, S., Maksić, S. (2006). Vrednosne orijentacije adolescenata: usmerenost prema sopstvenoj dobrobiti i dobrobiti drugih. Zbornik Instituta za pedagoška istraživanja br. 2, str , Beograd. 10. Jowett, S., & Cockerill, I.M. (2003). Olympic medallists perspective of the athlete-coach relationship. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4, Koković, D. (2000). Socijalna antropologija [Social anthropology]. Beograd: Viša košarkaška škola. 12. Mehrabian, A., & Stefl, C. A. (1995). Basic temperament components of loneliness, shyness, and conformity. Social Behavior and Personality, 23(3), Marjanović, N. (1995). Konformističko ponašanje adolescenata u vršnjačkoj grupi, Psihologija 1-2, , Beograd. 14. Martin, S.B., Jackson, A.W., Richardson, P.A., & Weiller, K.H. (1999). Coaching preferences of adolescent youths and their parents. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, McCutcheon, L., & Ashe, D. (1999). Can Individualists Find Satisfaction Participating in Interactive Team Sports? Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol

22 16. Mendoza, J. (2002). The War on Drugs in Sport: A Perspective From the Front-Line. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. Thematic Issue: Drugs and Performance-Enhancing Agents in Sport. 12(4): Niemand, J., R. (2006). An empirical investigation of the relationship between existential meaningin-life and racial prejudice. Unpublished master s thesis, University of Stellenbosch. 18. Sherman, C.A., Fuller, R., & Speed, H.D. (2000). Gender comparisons of preferred coaching behaviors in Australian sports. Journal of Sport Behavior, 23, Steinfeldt, J. A., Zakrajsek, R., Carter, H. & Steinfeldt, M. C. (2011). Conformity to gender norms among female student-athletes: Implications for body image. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 12(4), Voelker, D., Gould, D., & Crawford, M. (2011). Understanding the Experience of High School Sport Captains. The Sport Psychologist, 25(1): Vučković, I., & Gadžić, A. (2009). Senior basketball players conformity. Homo Sporticus, 11 (1), Vučković, I., Gadžić, A., Sekulić, Ž. & Lepir, D. (2010). Social characteristics and conformity of basketball players. Exercise and Quality of Life, 2(1), Wildman, J. (2006). The athlete leader role: interaction of gender, sport type, and coaching style. Dissertation, University of Texas. 478

23 DO ATHLETES HAVE A MORE POSITIVE SELF- PERCEPTION OF PHYSICAL APPEARANCE? Tatjana Tubić and Višnja ðorñić Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Abstract Previous findings consistently indicate that self-perception of one's physical appearance is the most important predictor of one's self-worth, irrespective of gender and age. On the other hand, young people's engagement in sports, at any level, proves to be an insufficiently exploited potential for improvement of their psychophysical functioning. Bearing in mind the above premises, the main objective of this research has been to determine the (cor)relation between self-perception of physical appearance and participation in sports. The sample included 786 students from the University of Novi Sad, 366 of whom were males (46.6%) and 420 females (53.4%). The research applied the subscale of self-perception of physical appearance from the questionnaire Self-perception Profile for College Students (Neemann & Harter, 1986). The obtained descriptive statistics indicate evenly low scores of all subsamples within this study on physical appearance self-perception, ranging from M=2.61 for non-athlete males to M=2.74 for females engaging in some individual sport. ANOVA suggests that self-perception of one's physical appearance depends neither on sports engagement nor on the length and level of sports engagement, which holds for females and males alike. Keywords: self-concept, self-perception, physical appearance, sports engagement Introduction The results of research undertaken in the field of social perception indicate that physically attractive persons are more favourably perceived than physically unattractive ones; besides, the former seem to be attributed more positive traits that hardly interface with their physical appearance (Lanlois et al., 2000; Riniolo, Johnson, Sherman, & Misso, 2006). Thus, for instance, attractive people are seen as more socially outgoing, extroverted and popular than the less attractive ones (Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, & Longo, 1991). Although such differences in judging others are most visible in the perception of social competence, the results of research suggest that the physically more attractive people are associated with greater intelligence, more prestigious jobs, happier marriages and, generally, more fulfilled personal life (according to Ćurković, Franc, 2010). The differences in perception of physical look seem to exist at such an early age as with infants six months old: namely, babies tend to look at physically appealing individuals for a longer time and to smile at these more frequently (Ramsey, Langlois, Hoss, Rubenstein, & Griffin, 2004). Moreover, school teachers have different expectations regarding the behaviour of their students in relation to differences in physical attractiveness (Patzer, 1985). The research done so far shows that teachers perceive more attractive students as those with higher intellectual (and educational) potential, even as children whose parents show greater interest in their scholastic performance. Also, teachers assess the physically more attractive children as those with aesthetically more pleasing handwriting (according to Krnjajić, 2005). As a rule, teachers' expectations from the students they take as less attractive physically are lower in terms of not only academic performance but also behaviour and personal characteristics. Small wonder then that children at a very early age, as early as in pre-school years, begin to discern the response of their social milieu to them and, consequently, start adapting themself to the expectations others show for them (Feingold, 1992). If a teacher expects a student whose physical appearance he/she views favourably to be more communicative and extroverted (even more assertive), the student will gradually adjust his/her behaviour to the teacher's expectation. Although determined 479

24 genetically and independent of personality, one's physical appearance thus triggers off some particular reactions on the part of their milieu, and this in turn impacts one's personality. As has been said, the way in which others perceive our physical appearance does play an important role in our overall psychological functioning. The way in which we perceive our own physical appearance is a component of our self-concept; moreover, self-evaluation in terms of physical appearance seems to be a key factor in one's self-respect regardless of gender and age. Research results indicate that self-evaluation in terms of physical appearance declines with age, and that males of all ages perceive their physical appearance more favourably than females (Granleese, Trew, & Turner, 1988; Van Wersch, Trear, & Turner, 1990; Marsh, 1989; Lintunen, Liskinen, Oinonen, & Salinto, 1995; Kling, Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999; Causgrove-Dunn & Watkinson, 1994; Lindwall & Hassmen, 2004; Harter, 1999; Hayes, Crocker, & Kowalski, 1999). The results obtained through research dealing with the (cor)relation of self-perception and engagement in sports suggest that, generally, one's participation in sport makes a positive impact on one's physical self-concept (Donaldson & Ronan, 2006), and also that sports engagement is associated with perception of sports competence rather than physical appearance (Tubić, ðorñić, & Poček, 2012). The results additionally indicate that athletes in team sports more favourably perceive sports competence as compared to people practising physical recreation (grassroot sport), whereas no difference occurs between them regarding perception of physical appearance (Ference, & Muth, 2004). However, the question awaiting an answer reads: How important are the length of practising sports and the level of sports engagement for a favourable self-perception regarding physical appearance? And that is the objective of this paper: to ascertain possible (cor)relation between physical appearance self-perception and sports engagement. More specifically, we sought answers to the following questions: a) Do respondents of either sex differ in self-perception of physical appearance depending on whether they pursue sports (individual or team-oriented), and b) Are the differences in self-perception of their physical appearance, and to what extent so, influenced by length of sports engagement and level of participation in sports? Participants Method The sample included 786 university students, 366 of whom were males (46.6%) and 420 females (53.4%). As to the structure according to year of their studies, 185 (23.5%) were first-year students, 153 (19.5%) attended second-year courses, 313 (39.8%) came from third year, and 135 (17.2%) were fourth-year students. Of the total number of respondents, 193 (24.6%) were students of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, 121 (15.4%) came from the Academy of Arts, 109 (13.9%) were students of the Faculty of Philosophy (Department of Pedagogy), 122 (15.5%) came from the Faculty of Medicine (Department of Special Rehabilitation and Education), 90 (11.5%) were students of the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics (Department of Applied Mathematics) and 151 respondents (19.2%) came from the Faculty of Technical Sciences (Department for Computing and Automatics). All of the said faculties are parts of the University of Novi Sad. The overall sample was divided into three categories: 253 students (32.2%) who did not pursue sport, i.e. non-athletes, 182 students (23.2%) practising individual sports, and 351 (44.7%) involved in team sports. Within the category of athletes, yet irrespective of which particular sport they practised, 124 (23.26%) students had accumulated sports practise of up to three years, 75 (14.07%) had up to five years, a 334 (62.66%) had been practising for more than five years. As to the level of sports engagement, 319 (59.85%) respondents placed themselves into local-level group, 134 (25.14%) saw themselves as having achieved national level, while 80 (15.01%) students declared their level international. Measures The measuring applied in this study was designed on the basis of the multidimensional selfconcept model developed by Harter (1999). Namely, an individual typically evaluates his/her self differently in specific domains of self-perception, together with an overall self-worth as an independent aspect of the self-concept, providing a profile of his/her sense of adequacy across relevant areas (Harter, 480

25 1985, 1999). Since the number and content of self-perception domains increases with age, due to cognitive maturation and social experiences, this research resorted to a subscale referring to selfevaluation in terms of physical appearance used in the questionnaire Self-perception Profile for College Students (Neemann & Harter, 1986). The offered subscale statements are formulated as complex, bipolar sentences: one part of such sentence describes competent behaviour of a college student, while the other describes lesser competence (e.g. Some students are happy with the way they look, but Other students are not happy with the way they look). Respondents should determine whether the first or the second part of the sentence describes them better; next, they should decide whether the said description refers to them in full or just partially. The score on every subscale represents the arithmetic mean of the responses given to each item scored on a four-level scale, where 1 stands for the lowest competence in the observed domain, and 4 stands for the highest. The internal consistency reliability subscale with regard to physical appearance which was obtained from the overall sample was Data analysis In order to ascertain the self-perception of physical appearance with male and female students as depending on whether they are engaged in sports (subdivided into individual and team sports), methods of descriptive statistics were used (arithmetic mean, standard deviation). In order to ascertain statististical significance of the differences between the said subgroups of respondents and they further differed in terms of length of practising sports and the level of sports engagement univariate general linear model (GLM) was applied. Results Table 1 presents the elementary results of descriptive statistics with regard to self-perception of physical appearance in the subsamples of submitted questionnaire. Table 1. Descriptive indicators of self-perception of one's physical appearance in the submitted subsamples N M SD Male students Female students Non-athletes Individual sports Team sports Non-athletes Individual sports Team sports The results given in Table 1 indicate evenly low scores in physical appearance self-perception with all of the subsamples, ranging from M=2.61 in the non-athlete category of male students to M=2.74 in the category of female students practising individual sports. On the basis of the results obtained through the applied univariate GLM (a two-way analysis of variance ANOVA), one can see that the effects of the impact of the independent variables under inspection (gender and sports engagement being fixed factors, and length and level of practice taken as covariates) onto self-perception of one's physical appearance prove to be of no statistical significance: even in terms of mutual interacting between length and level of sports engagement, those effects are not statistically significant with the respondents of different gender and differing sports engagement (F=2.264; p=.105); neither are they significant statistically in relation to the effects of individual factors on the dependent variable. That is to say that male and female students do not differ to any statistically significant degree in terms of their self-perception regarding physical appearance (F=2.503; p=.114); neither do the respondents differ to a statistically significant degree when their sports (non-)engagement is taken into account (F=.956; p=.385), or the length of practicing sports (F=2.592; p=.108), or the level of their athletic activity (F=.135; p=.713). 481

26 Discussion The physical attractiveness stereotype, reflected in the view that the beautiful is good, has been confirmed through scientific research in this area of issues: perception of physically attractive individuals indicates some advantages they enjoy in a large variety of domains compared to physically unattractive people. Sport is a kind of testing ground where healthy lifestyle is demonstrated; one of the implications of that fact is that standards of physical appearance are being imposed which correspond to some generally accepted values and requirements of contemporary life. A relevant number of participants in sports activities emphasize that taking care about one's physical appearance is a major goal of their sports engagement on the whole. Boys especially are expected to be strong, masculine and active; therefore, they are exposed to being directed toward sports (Neisen, Braun, & Shepherd, 2007). The question arises whether sports engagement and the way in which others perceive athletes and their physical appearance have impact on how an athlete would perceive his/her own physical appearance. In other words, does the common-sense opinion that athletes view their own physical appearance rather favourably correspond with the results of scientific research dealing with self-perception of one's physical appearance found with athletes of either sex, different kinds of their sports engagement, as well as length and level of their participation in sports. The results obtained in the research involving students of the University of Novi Sad indicate that one's judgment of his/her own physical appearance does not depend on their sports engagement, or on the length/experience of their participation in sports, or on the level of the athletic engagement. And this holds for females and males alike. Self-perception of one's physical appearance is undoubtedly conditioned by some factors which are related to favourable judgments with regard to other aspects of psychophysical functioning and not only to objective assessment of physical attributes per se. Thus, a person who takes himself/herself as a socially accepted and popular individual, or as a professionally competent one, can appear more attractive physically in his/her own eyes. In this context, sports engagement is but one of the ways in which one can realize his/her physical features and build the related self-perception. However, sport and that has been shown through this research does not grant privileges or exert influence in self-perception of people's physical appearance, at least not more so than some other synchronous activities of an individual. In search of an explanation to support the said results, we could claim that non-athletes are satisfied with their physical appearance, or that they do not associate participation in sports with the chance to upgrade their self-perception regarding physical appearance. Non-athletes pursue other activities and reach satisfaction therein, which strengthens their self-perception on the whole, including their physical appearance. Hence the neutralized differences between the subsamples of athletes and nonathletes. The explanation deduced from the results of previous research should by no means be neglected in the issue, since they tell that sports engagement is more closely associated with some other aspects of self-perception, such as self-perception of one's athletic competence or, more broadly, of one's acceptance by the social milieu. References 1. Causgrove-Dunn, J. L., & Watkinson, E. J. (1994). A study of the relationship between physical awkwardness and children's perceptions of physical competence. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 11(3), Ćurković, K., & Franc, R. (2010). Stereotip fizičke privlačnosti lijepo je dobro u okviru petofaktorske teorije ličnosti [Physical Attractiveness Stereotype Beautiful is Good in the Context of The Big Five Personality Theory]. Psihologijske teme, 19(1), Donaldson, S., & Ronan, K. (2006). The effects of sports participation on young adolescents emotional well-being. Adolescence, 41(162), Eagly, A. H., Ashmore, R. D., Makhijani, M. G., & Longo, L. C. (1991). What is the beautiful is good, but...: A meta-analiytic review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype. Psychological Bulletin, 110,

27 5. Feingold, A. (1992). Gender differences in mate selection preferences: A test of the parental investment model. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), Ference, R. & Muth, K. D. (2004). Helping middle school females form a sense of self through team sports and exercise. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 13(1), Granleese, J., Trew, K., & Turner, I. F. (1988). Sex differences i perceived competence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 27, Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Denver, CO: University of Denver. 9. Harter, S. (1999). The Construction of the Self: A Developmental Perspective. NY: Guilford Press. 10. Hayes, S. D., Crocker, P. R. E., & Kowalski, K. C. (1999). Gender differences in physical selfperceptions, global self-esteem and physical activity: Evaluation of the Physical Self-Perception Profile model. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22, Kling, K. C., Hyde, J. S., Showers, C. J. & Buswell, B. N. (1999). Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 125, Krnjajić, S. (2005). Efekti fizičke privlačnosti učenika [Effects of Student Physical Attrectiveness]. Zbornik Instituta za pedagoška istraživanja, 1, Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A. J., Larson, A., Hallam, M., & Smoot, M. (2000). Maxims or miths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 126(3), Lindwall, M., & Hassmén, P. (2004). The role of exercise and gender for physical self-perceptions and importance ratings in Swedish university students. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 14, Lintunen, T., Liskinen, E., Oinonen, M., & Salinto, M. (1995). Change, reliability, and stability in self-perceptions in early adolescence: A four-year follow-up study. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 18, Marsh, H. W. (1989). Age and sex effects in multiple dimensions of self-concept: Preadolescence to early adulthood. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, Neemann, J., & Harter, S. (1986). Manual for the Self-Perception Profile for College Students. Denver, CO: University of Denver. 18. Neisen, M., Braun, C. A., & Shepherd, L. (2007). A school-based physical activity program tailored to adolescent girls. Journal of Education and Human Development, 1(1). 19. Patzer, G. L. (1085). The physical attractiveness phenomena. New York: Plenum. 20. Ramsey, L. J., Langlois, J. H., Hoss, R. A., Rubenstein, A. J., & Griffin, A. M. (2004). Origins of a stereotype: Categprization of facial attractioness by 6-month-old infants. Developmental Science, 7(2), Riniolo, T. C., Johnson, T. C., Sherman, T. R., & Misso, J. (2006). Hot or not: Do professors perceived as physically attactive receive higher student evaluations? The Journal of General Psychology, 113(1), Tubić, T., ðorñić, V., i Poček, S. (2012). Dimenzije self-koncepta i bavljenje sportom u ranoj adolescenciji. Psihologija, 45(2), Van den Bergh, B. R. H. & Marcoen, A. (1999). Harter` s Self-Perception Profile for Children: Factor structure, reliability, and convergent validity in a Dutch-speaking Belgian sample of fourth, fifth and sixth graders. Psychologica Belgica, 39(1),

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29 BODY IMAGE AND COMPETITIVE RANK AMONG SPORT DANCERS Alen Miletic Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Croatia Abstract The basic aim of this investigation is to establish differences between the five levels of sport dance competitors and their self-estimated body image by usage of Multidimensional Body Image Questionnaire designed for dancers separately by gender. The investigation is conducted on 173 female sport dancers and 200 male sport dancers from 51 countries all over the world. The dancers had two ways to participated in investigation: by completing classical (paper and pen) questionnaire given by their trainers or by completing online questionnaire throughout the Survey Monkey server. Multidimensional Body Image Questionnaire (MBIQD) administrated in this investigation is a self-reported instrument constructed of 36 items with 5-point response format. According to factor analysis oblimin rotation and Guttman Kaiser Criterion, those items yielded eight factors (attractiveness, joy, body efficacy, flexibility, energy, strength, bad health/weakness and masculinity/femininity). Discriminate analysis was applied to analyze the differences between five competitive levels in sport dance and eight subscales of MBIQD separately by gender. The results on the female dancers suggested that discriminate function is defined mostly by masculinity/femininity strength, and inversely scaled bad health/weakness subscales. In the basis of the differences of less and more successful female sport dancers is their self perception of physical appearance, strength and good health. On the sample of male dancers, discriminate analysis was not significant according to values of Wilks' lambda. Keywords: international competitors, competitive levels, body image Introduction The self-estimated body image is topic interesting for athletes, especially ones who practices aesthetic activities (Anshel, 2004; Ravaldi et al., 2006, Milavic et al 2012.). According to Ambrosi-Radnić (2003) body images consisted of: perception and attitudes about body, body pose in space, body constraint and body competences related with age. Body-Image Questionnaire (BIQ) was firstly developed by Bruchon- Schweitzer (1987) for 619 French subjects between the ages of 10 and 40 years old on a 19-item scale to explore the dimensionality of perception, feelings, and attitudes expressed towards one s body. Koleck et al. (2002) tried to replicate the factorial structure of the Body-Image Questionnaire on the 1222 French subjects (542 men, 680 women) with an investigation aimed to confirm the BIQ construct, discriminate and predictive validity. First Multidimensional Body Image Questionnaire designed especially for dancers was firstly developed by Milavic et al (2012) administrated to 393 female and male students who participated in dance classes and successfully passed dance exams. The scale consisted of 43 items with a 5-point response format. Factorial analysis yielded eight factors. Dancers are target population for investigating of perception about physical appearance. The self perception of their body image is connected with capability to express the main choreographers ideas, to express well themselves, to present their athletic and artistic abilities, and therefore to achieve better competitive results. The better physical appearance self perception usually means greater self-confidence while performing choreography (Kostic et al. 2012). Body image researches among sport dancers are very rare, but extremely important. It is well known that dancers are critical about their physical appearance. But, is this criticism is connected with their competition level and how is not investigated yet. Another problem of 485

30 this investigation is definition of criterion for competition level. Objectively, this could be presented according to WDSF rang or won medals. The basic aim of this investigation is to establish differences between the five levels of sport dance competitors and their self-estimated body image by usage of Multidimensional Body Image Questionnaire designed for dancers. Method The investigation is conducted on 173 female sport dancers and 200 male sport dancers from 51 countries all over the world. The dancers had two ways to participated in investigation: by completing classical (paper and pen) questionnaire given by their trainers or by completing online questionnaire throughout the Survey Monkey server. Multidimensional Body Image Questionnaire (MBIQD) administrated in this investigation is a self-reported instrument constructed of 36 items with 5-point response format: with 0 none; 1 some/a little; 2- partly; 3- quite; 4 totally (Milavic et al., 2012; Kostic et al., 2012). Dancers were active dance couples, competitors in Latin (samba, rumba, cha-cha-cha, paso double and jive) and Standard (English waltz, tango, Wien waltz, slow fox and quickstep) dances. For assessing the competition level, for defining the groups of dancers, both male and female, the following criterion was applied: WDSF rank or won medals. In this manner, the five groups of dancers were defined: (1) competitors without WDSF rank and without won medals; (2) competitors without WDSF but they won medals et international competitions; (3) medal winners ranked on WDSF above 500 position; (4) medal winners ranked on WDSF from 500 to 100 position; (5) medal winners ranked on WDSF from 100 to first position. For defining the interaction between the eight MBIQD subscales and defined five competition level, the discriminate analysis was applied separately for females and males. Results In previous investigation he eight factor structure of MBIQD questionnaire were confirmed on the sample of kinesiology students (Milavic et al, 2012) and sport dancers (Kostic et al. 2012). According to factor analysis oblimin rotation and Guttman Kaiser Criterion, those items yielded eight factors (attractiveness, joy, body efficacy, flexibility, energy, strength, bad health/weakness and masculinity/femininity). In this paper, discriminate analysis was applied to analyze the differences between five competitive levels in sport dance and eight subscales of MBIQD separately by gender. The eight obtained factors explained 56.60% of the total variance (Milavic et al 2012). The internal consistency (Cronbach alpha coefficient) of the items assigned to each of the eight MBIQD subscales was high and satisfactory (from.71 to.89). In this research the same scales were used to analyze the appliance of MBIQD on the sample of elite Standard & Latin dancers. According to results obtained by discriminate analysis calculated separately by gender, the inter-relations of factors of Multidimensional Body Image Questionnaire were defined among subsamples defined by competitive levels in among sport dancers. Results of discriminate analysis for female dancers were significant for the first discriminate dimension. Discriminate coefficient were 0.37 and Wilks Lambda = 0.75 with statistically significant discriminate function on the 0.03 level. On the sample of male dancers, discriminate analysis was not significant according to values of Wilks' lambda. Structure of first discriminative function (the correlation of MBIQD subscales with discriminate function) for female dancer was presented in Table 1. Structure of discriminative function for male dancers was not presented because the Wilks' lambda calculated on male dancers population was not significant. Arithmetic means of discriminate scores (centroides) were presented in table 2 only for significant, female dance sample. Group of female dancer without competitive success (without won medals or WDSF rank) and the group with the most excellent success (the female dancers among first hundred WDSF ranked) had a positive score on discriminate function. Negative score of discriminate function were evident among female dance groups with registered moderate and above average, but not elite competitive success. 486

31 Table 1. 1 th discriminant factor (structure matrix) for female dancers dimensions of MBIQD 1 th discriminant factor body efficacy 0,17 bad health/weakness -0,48 masculinity/femininity 0,61 flexibility 0,14 joy -0,15 energy -0,19 strength 0,44 attractiveness 0,17 Table 2. Centroids for 1 th discriminant factor competitive levels centroids without WDSF rank and medals 0,25 medal winners/ without WDSF rank -0,19 medal winners/ WDSF rank above 500-0,68 medal winners/ WDSF rank from 100 to 500-0,68 medal winners/ WDSF rank from 1 to 100 0,44 Discussion The obtained results for the female dancers indicated that discriminate function is defined by masculinity/femininity, inversed bad health/weakness and strength MBIQD subscales. Miletic et al (2012) were already defined that masculinity/femininity subscale denotes muscular look (athletic physique) among dancers. Therefore, in the basis of more and less successful female dancers, according to correlation of MBIQD subscales with discriminate function are their self-perception of physical abilities, strength and good health. Athletic physique among female sport dancers were probably connected with fear of injuries and then with nervousness among competitive dancers. Results obtained on female dancers and groups defined by positive and negative scores on discriminative function were not expected. According to definition of first discriminative function, it is possible that the group without any competitive success was lined on their physical abilities and the most successful dancers are defined by the fear of injuries. They are the group of dancers the most sensitive on injuries; because their training load is very high and the injuries will most probably increase their WDSF rang. However, additional researcher is necessary for definition of dancer s level of success on dancers body image defined by MBIQD questionnaire. The different approach for definition of competitive level is necessary to confirm or decline presented thesis. 487

32 References 1. Anshel, M.H. (2004). Sources of disordered eating patterns between ballet dancers and non-dancers. Journal of Sport Behavior, 27, Ambrosi-Radnić, N. (2003). Novija istraživanja u području predodžbe o vlastitom tijelu. Metodički ogledi, 10(1), Bruchon-Schweitzer, M. (1987). Dimensionality of the Body Image: The Body Image Questionnaire. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 65, Kostić R., Uzunović, S., Milavić, B., Miletić, A., & Miletić, ð. (2012). Appliance of multidimensional body image questionnaire among elite Standard and Latin dancers. In ð. Miletić, S. Krstulović, Z. Grgantov, T. Bavčević, & A. Kezić (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4 th International Scientific Conference: Suvremena kineziologija (pp ). Split: University of Split. 5. Milavić, B., Miletić, A., & Miletić, ð. (2012). Impact of Body Mass Index on Body Image Dimensions: Results from a Body-Image Questionnaire Designed for Dancers. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 27(3), Koleck, M., Bruchon-Schweitzer, M., Cousson-Gelie, F., Gilliard, J., & Quintard, B. (2002). The Body image questionnaire: an extension. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94, Ravaldi, C., Vannacci, A., Bolognesi, E., Safania, M., Faravelli, C., & Ricca, V. (2006). Gender role, eating disorders symptoms, and body image concern in ballet dancers. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61,

33 STRUCTURE AND FEATURES OF COMPETITIVENESS INDEX Noémi Keresztes 1, Bettina Pikó 2, Anikó Pálinkás 1, Virág Horváth 1 and Márta Fülöp 3 1 University of Szeged, Institute of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Hungary 2 University of Szeged, Department of Behavioral Sciences, Hungary 3 Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology, Research Centre of Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Hungary Abstract Competitiveness is an important factor among social variables influencing youth s health related behaviors, however the relationship between competitiveness and health behaviors is a less investigated field of research. In addition, cultural background may lead to differences in dimensions and structure of competitiveness, but only few researchers have examined this relationship thus far. Our data contained three subsamples. The first wave of data were collected in 2005, in the Southern Plain Region of Hungary, Békés and Csongrád counties. 548 questionnaires were analyzed (age range: years; M= 16.3 years; S.D. 1.3 years; response rate: 91.3%; 42% girls). The second one was collected in 2009, in the same region, from Szeged. 501 questionnaires were analyzed (age range: years; M=21.3 years; S.D. 1.6 years; response rate: 98,2%; 57.5% girls). Finally, the third subsample was collected in 2010 from Novi Sad, Subotica and B. Topola. 200 questionnaires were analyzed (age range: years; M=22.67 years; S.D. 2.0 years, response rate: 95,2%; 43.5% girls). Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect data. Questionnaires included items on sociodemographics, competitiveness and health behaviors. Factor analysis provided three factor solution with good reliability values, but different factor loadings on the subsamples. Enjoyment of competition factor was nearly the same in all subsamples, but the other factors were varied. Among Hungarian youth Avoidance of social conflict and Fear of competition were separate factors, while among students from Serbia making difference between arguements and competition was a more important issue. Avoidance of arguements was correlated with negative emotion (dread, unpleasant) while avoidance of competition was not. We also found differences in the relationships between competitiveness factors and health behaviors. Our study pointed out that health promotion programs should take cultural background into account. Keywords: competitiveness, health behaviors, cultural background Introduction Patterns of youth health behaviors are influenced by many social variables. Among them social influences (Keresztes, Pikó, Pluhár & Page, 2008); social images (Keresztes, Pikó, Gibbons & Spielberger, 2009); social comparison (Pikó, Skultéti, Luszczynska & Gibbons, 2010), social coping mechanisms (Pikó & Keresztes, 2007) and indeed competitiveness (Pikó, et al. 2010) have an important role. There were many studies on competitive attitude in variety samples from the United States, but empirical experiences from samples outside the United States were less (Houston, Harris, Moore, Brummet & Kametani, 2005). However, different dimensions of competitiveness may have a different role in different cultures, just very few studies examined the relationship between competitiveness and cultural background (e.g. Furnham, Kirkcaldy & Lynn, 1994; Ryckman, Van Der Borne & Syroit, 1992). 489

34 Health behaviors are also influenced by the cultural environment. Previous studies found significant differences in them among different nationalities (Unger, Cruy, Shakib, Mock, Schield & et al. 2003) and minorities (Wang Matthew, Bellamy & James, 2005). The relationship between competitiveness and health behaviors is a less investigated field of research (Houston, Harris & Norman, 2003). A previous study pointed out that regular smoking was more frequent among competitive students (Johnson & Hoffman, 2000). Another empirical study also found that students who scored higher on competitiveness were engaged in regular substance use (Pikó et al. 2010). Previous research established that adult athletes scored higher in terms of their sport orientation in all three areas (competitiveness, win and goal orientation) comparing with non-athletes (Finkenberg, Moode & Dinucci, 1998; Gill & Deeter, 1988). Based on earlier studies we expected to exist differences in the structure of competitiveness and in the way how they related to health behaviors. Thus, the main goal of our present study was to detect the structure and features of competitiveness among Hungarian and Serbian subsamples. Method Our data contained three subsamples. The first wave of data were collected in 2005, in the Southern Plain Region of Hungary, Békés and Csongrád counties among secondary school students. 548 questionnaires were analyzed (age range: years; M= 16.3 years; S.D. 1.3 years; response rate: 91.3%; 42% girls). The second one was collected in 2009 from University students, in the same region, in Szeged. 501 questionnaires were analyzed (age range: years; M=21.3 years; S.D. 1.6 years; response rate: 98,2%; 57.5% girls). Finally, the third University subsample was collected in 2010 from Novi Sad, Subotica and B. Topola. 200 questionnaires were analyzed (age range: years; M=22.67 years; S.D. 2.0 years, response rate: 95,2%; 43.5% girls). Self-administered questionnaires included items on sociodemographics, competitiveness (Houston et al. 2002) and health behaviors (Luszczynka, Gibbons, Pikó & Teközel, 2004; Keresztes et al. 2008). For the purpose of the study, we dichotomized the health behaviors variables (1=no, 2=yes, except for leisure time physical activity where 1=no or occasionally, 2=regularly) (Keresztes et al. 2009). Results Factor analysis on the Hungarian secondary school subsample provided a three-factor solution with good reliability values. Table 1 presents the final factor structure. Table 1. Final factor structure for the Competitivness Index among Hungarian secondary school students Factors with eigenvalues Variables Factor 1 (3.64) Factor 2 (2.48) Factor 3 (1.88) Factor loadings 1. I get satisfaction from competing with others 2. I am a competitive individual I will do almost anything to avoid an argument 4. I try to avoid arguments I often remain quite rather than risk hurting another person I find competitive situations unpleasant I try to avoid competing with others In general I will go along with the group rather than create conflict I don t like competing against other people I dread competing against other people I enjoy competing against an opponent I often try to out perform others

35 Table 1. Final factor structure for the Competitivness Index among Hungarian secondary school students (CONT) Variables Factor 1 (3.64) Factor 2 (2.48) 13. I like competition I don t enjoy challenging others even when I think they are wrong Enjoyment of Avoidance of social competition factor conflict factor Cronbach alpha % variance Table 1. Note. Only factor loadings > 0.3 are included (Kaiser s criterion). Cronbach alpha coefficients display the reliability of the scales. Factor 3 (1.88) Fear of competition factor Factor 1 was labelled Enjoyment of competition including the following items: I get satisfaction from competing with others; I am a competitive individual, I enjoy competing against an opponent; I often try to out perform others; I like competition. This factor negatively correlated with the following two items: I try to avoid arguments, I don t like competing against other people. Factor 2 was labelled Avoidance of social conflict which includes items on avoiding comptetitions, namely: I will do almost anything to avoid an argument; I try to avoid arguments; I often remain quite rather than risk hurting another person; I try to avoid competing with others; In general I will go along with the group rather than create conflict. Factor 3 was labelled Fear of competition including items that are closely connected to unpleasant feelings of competitions: I find competitive situations unpleasant; In general I will go along with the group rather than create conflict; I don t like competing against other people; I dread competing against other people; I don t enjoy challenging others even when I think they are wrong. As Table 2 shows, analyzing the structure of competitiveness among Hungarian University students we found nearly the same dimensions as in the younger secondary schools subsample, in contrast with the Serbian University students (Table 3) where making difference between arguements and competition was a more important issue than separating Avoidance of social conflict and Fear of competition. Avoidance of arguements was correlated with negative emotion (dread, unpleasant) while avoidance of competition was not. Table 2. Final factor structure for the Competitivness Index among Hungarian University students Factors with eigenvalues Variables Factor 1 (4.14) Factor 2 (2.88) Factor 3 (1.79) Factor loadings 1. I get satisfaction from competing with others 2. I am a competitive individual I will do almost anything to avoid an argument 4. I try to avoid arguments I often remain quite rather than risk hurting another person I find competitive situations unpleasant I try to avoid competing with others In general I will go along with the group rather than create conflict 9. I don t like competing against other people 10. I dread competing against other people 11. I enjoy competing against an opponent 12. I often try to out perform others

36 Table 2. Final factor structure for the Competitivness Index among Hungarian University students (CONT) Variables Factor 1 (4.14) Factor 2 (2.88) Factor 3 (1.79) 13. I like competition I don t enjoy challenging others even when I think they are wrong Enjoyment of competition factor Avoidance of social conflict factor Fear of competition factor Cronbach alpha % variance Table 2. Note. Only factor loadings > 0.3 are included (Kaiser s criterion). Cronbach alpha coefficients display the reliability of the scales. Based on the factor loadings, three competitiveness scales were developed with satisfactory reliability. In further analyses, the mean scores of the scales were applied and analyzed according to various health behaviors and competitiveness characteristics. Table 3. Final factor structure for the Competitivness Index among Serbian University students Factors with eigenvalues Variables Factor 1 (4.68) Factor 2 (2.45) Factor 3 (2.27) Factor loadings 1. I get satisfaction from competing with others 2. I am a competitive individual I will do almost anything to avoid an argument 4. I try to avoid arguments I often remain quite rather than risk hurting another person 6. I find competitive situations unpleasant 7. I try to avoid competing with others In general I will go along with the group rather than create conflict 9. I don t like competing against other people 10. I dread competing against other people 11. I enjoy competing against an opponent 12. I often try to out perform others I like competition I don t enjoy challenging others even when I think they are wrong Enjoyment of competition factor 492 Negative emotions with competitive situation and avoidance of arguements Avoidance of competition and arguements Cronbach alpha % variance Table 3. Note. Only factor loadings > 0.3 are included (Kaiser s criterion). Cronbach alpha coefficients display the reliability of the scales. Table 4 shows the relationship between health risk behaviors and Competitiveness scales. Avoidance of social conflict factor and Fear of competition factor were in significant relationship with smoking and alcohol use. Means scores among smoker and alcohol drinker students were higher.

37 Table 4. Relationship between health risk behaviors and Competitivness Index factors among Hungarian secondary school students Health risk behaviors Smoking No Yes Alcohol use No Yes Enjoyment of competition Avoidance of social Fear of competition factor conflict factor factor Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) (6.73) (6.81) (4.48)** (4.49) (6.73) (4.33)** (6.80) (4.57) Table 4. Note: student t- test, *p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p< (3.88)* (3.88) (3.87)* (3.88) According to preventive health behaviors, we found that all competitiveness scale was in significant relationship with physical activity, while diet controll was correlated significantly just to Avoidance of competition factor and Fear of competition factor (Table 5). Table 5. Relationship between preventive health behaviors and Competitivness Index factors among Hungarian secondary school students Preventive health behaviors Physical activity No/occassionally Reguralry Diet control No Yes Enjoyment of competition factor Avoidance of social conflict factor Fear of competition factor Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) (6.67)*** (6.59) (4.56)* (4.41) (6.40) (4.37)*** (6.86) (4.43) Table 5. Note: student t-test, *p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p< (3.82)* (3.89) (3.81)** (3.88) Table 6 presents the relationship between health risk behaviors and competitiveness scales among Hugarian University students. Smoking didn t show significant relationship neither of the scales, while, alcohol was in significant relationship with all factors. Mean scores were higher among drinkers while nondrinkers had lower values on Avoidance of social conflict and Fear of competition factors. Table 6. Relationship between health risk behaviors and Competitivness Index factors among Hungarian University students Health risk behaviors Smoking No Yes Alcohol use No Yes Enjoyment of Avoidance of social Fear of competition competition factor conflict factor factor Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) (7.09) (7.53) (4.73) (4.73) (7.73)*** (4.76)** (7.04) (4.68) Table 6. Note: student t- test, *p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p< (2.65) 6.36 (2.66) 7.21 (3.02)** 6.07 (2.55) Analyzing the relationship between preventive health behaviors and Competitiveness scales among Hungarian University students we found that that none of the factors were correlated significatly to preventive health behaviors, but in case of diet controll we experienced a tendencial relationship whereas students with healthy diet scored less on Fear of competition factor (Table 7). 493

38 Table 7. Relationship between preventive health behaviors and Competitivness Index factors among Hungarian University students Preventive health behaviors Physical activity No/occassionally Reguralry Diet control No Yes Enjoyment of competition factor Avoidance of social conflict factor Fear of competition factor Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) (7.31) (7.23) (6.34) (7.32) (3.65) (4.75) (5.07) (4.72) Table 7. Note: student t-test, *p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p< (2.47) 6.19 (2.64) 6.40 (2.84) (p=0.07) 6.23 (2.65) As Table 8 shows that according to Avoidance of competition and arguements factor, means scores were significantly higher among nonsmokers. While in case of Enjoyment of competition alcohol drinkers mean scores were higher than non drinkers. Table 8. Relationship between health risk behaviors and Competitivness Index factors among Serbian University students Health risk behaviors Smoking No Yes Alcohol use No Yes Enjoyment of competition factor Negative emotions with competitive situation and avoidance of arguements factor Avoidance of competition and arguements factor Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) (7.81) (8.47) (5.75) (5.64) (8.14)* (5.64) (7.97) (5.74) Table 8. Note: student t- test, *p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p< (4.54)* (4.74) (4.49) (4.72) We also found that Enjoyment of competition factor was in significant relationship with physical activity and diet controll. Means scores were higher among regularly active students and students who don t follow diet in a healthy way. In contrast, according to Negative emotions with competitive situation and avoidance of arguements factor means scores were higher among students with healthy diet (Table 9). Table 9. Relationship between preventive health behaviors and Competitivness Index factors among Hungarian University students Preventive health behaviors Enjoyment of competition factor Negative emotions with competitive situation and avoidance of arguements faktor Avoidance of competition and arguements factor Physical activity No/occassionally Reguralry Diet control No Yes (7.91)* (8.03) Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) Mean (S.D.) (6.10) (5.65) (7.59)* (5.03)* (8.09) (5.70) Table 9. Note: student t-test, *p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p< (4.26) (4.73) (4.55) (4.68)

39 Conclusion Previous studies suggested that competitiveness was a multidimensional concept (Houston et al. 2002). Actually, we identified three independent dimensions of competitiveness using factor analysis on each subsamples. We found similarities and differences in the structure of competitiveness among Hungarian secondary school students, Hungarian and Serbian University students. As previously supposed these factors indeed had a different role in varying health behaviors. Our study with its limitation identified the importance of the cultural aspect of social behavior. We hope that these findings provide some useful information on the relationship between competitiveness, health behaviors and cultural background. References 1. Finkenberg, M.E., Moode, F.M., & Dinucci, J.M. (1998). Analysis of sport orientation of female collegiate athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86, Furnham, A., Kirkcaldy, B.D., & Lynn, R. (1994). National attitudes to competitiveness, money, and work among young people: First, second, and third world differences. Human Relations, 47, Gill, D.L., & Deeter, T. (1988). Development of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59, Houston, J.M., Harris, P.B., Mcintires, S., & Francis, D. (2002). Revising the Competitiveness Index. Psychological Reports, 90, Houston, J.M., Harris, P.B., & Norman, M. (2003). The Agressive Driving Behavior Scale: Developing a self report measure of unsafe practices. North American Journal of Psychology, 5, Houston, J.M., Harris, P.B., Moore, R., Brummet, R., & Kametani, H. (2005). Competitiveness among Japanese, Chinese, and American undergraduate students. Psychological Reports, 97, Johnson, R.A., & Hoffman, J.P. (2000). Adolescent cigarette smoking in US racial/ethnic subgroups: Findings from the National Educational Longitudinal Study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, Keresztes, N., Piko, B., Pluhar, Zs., & Page, R.M. (2008). Brief report: Social influences in leisure time sport activity among early adolescents. The Journal of Royal Society for Promotion of Health, 1, Keresztes, N., Piko, B., Gibbons, F.X., & Spielberger, C.D. (2009). Do high and low active adolescents have different prototypes of physically active peers? The Psychological Record, 59, Luszczynska, A., Gibbons, F.X., Piko, B.F., & Tekozel, M. (2004). Self-regulatory cognitions, social comparison, and perceived peers behaviors as predictors of nutrition and physical activity: A comparison among adolescents in Hungary, Poland, Turkey, and USA. Psychology and Health, 19, Piko, B., & Keresztes, N. (2007). The role of social coping mechanisms in adolescent health behavior. In: RHODES, T.C (ed.), Focus on adolescent behavior research. (NOVA Science Publishers, New York), Piko, B.F, Skulteti, D., Luszczynska, A., & Gibbons, F.X. (2010). Social orientations and adolescent health behaviors in Hungary. International Journal of Psychology, 1, Ryckman, R.M., Van Den Borne, H.W., & Syroit, J.E.M. (1992). Differences in hypercompetitive attitude between American and Dutch university students. The Journal of Social Psychology, 132, Triandis, H.C., Mccusker, C., & Hui, C.H. (1990). Multimethod probes of individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, Unger, J. B., Cruz, T., Shakib, S., Mock, J., Shields, A., Baezconde-Garbanati, L., Palmer, P., Cruz, J.D., Edsall, E., Gritz, E.R., Glynn, T., Johnson, C.A. (2003). Exploring the cultural context of tobacco use: a transdisciplinary framework. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 5 (1), Wang, M.Q., Matthew, R.F., Bellamy, N., James, S. (2005). A structural model of the substance use pathway among minority youth. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26,

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41 THE EFFECT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING PROGRAM ON FOOTBALL PLAYERS TO COGNITIVELY MANAGE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS Nadhim Al-Wattar 1 and Maha Sabre Hussan 2 1 University of Mosul, Iraq 2 University of Dyiala, Iraq Abstract The research aims at constructing psychological counseling programme on cognitive stress management for soccer players.the sample of this research (21) players from Al-Huriea team in Mosul.The sample was divided in two groups, experimental group included (11) players and the control group included (10) players, equivalence has been done in the variables (age, training age, academic achievement, anxiety state ) as pretest the state anxiety scale (CSAI_2) has been used as a tool to measure the anxiety.the research concluded the following results ; there are significant differences in Cognitive anxiety and Somatic anxiety between the two groups for the cognitive anxiety for the benefit of the experimental group, meanwhile there were no significant difference in all demands of the scale. Keywords: Counseling, Cognitive Stress, Soccer Players Introduction The Counseling programs are one of the most adopted treatments by many researchers and by those who work in the field of education, teaching and other fields, especially the sport one. These programs aim at making change in the directions and behaviors of the athletes, and in order to overcome the obstructions that they face in their training programs or at competitions or even in their life in general. Such changes can greatly contribute in the good psychological preparation of the athletes in order to accomplish the best sport achievement. The Counseling methods and the psychological therapy are based on a great number of principles that regulate the interactive relation between the instructor and the instructed person in order to make the necessary change in behavior to face the difficulties and the psychological problems that face individuals in general and the especially the athletes. (Alawi, 1998) refers to that the athlete should have the maximum physical and skilful abilities because achieving the highest sport levels requires having the maximum psychological stability that helps in enduring Stress and the high stimulation during training and competitions and at the same time to achieve the best performance (Alawi, 1998, 35). In fact, the sport instruction is not different than other types of instructions. Titley refers to that trainers and athletes who ask for psychological help are qualified with full protection of the psychological principles and the ethical standards at the same degree of the secured life of any other instructed person. This includes different aspects in the lives of the trainers and the athletes (Suinn, 1994, 357). To face this Stress, athletes use "different adapted skills. Some of these skills reduce tension, some help in facing the problem and others deal with the cognitive sides that are linked to evaluating the source of the Stress or evaluating the available sources to face this Stress". Recognizing the Stress is an important issue that the researchers emphasized. It is more important than the reaction towards the Stress itself. Lazarus emphasized the effect of the individual's recognition of the possible threat in the pressuring situations. He considers that the individual's belief in his/her ability to face or evade the threat in that situation is the important side. Different strategies of instructions and psychological guidance were used to achieve the best level of psychological harmony for athletes. One of the most important strategy is the Cognitive intervention that refers to the active mental processes that are designed to make the change in 497

42 the thinking patterns of the athlete and to affect these patterns in order to achieve the positive development in the performance of the kinetic skills (Annan, 1995, 341). Therefore, the training process of using the advanced Counseling and psychological programs to cognitively manage the psychological Stress is an important scientific step through which the trainers attempt to promote their training programs with every useful and valuable thing. In their training contentment, the trainers rely on the modern scientific procedures in dealing with psychological problems of the players and also to prepare those players in a good way to face the difficult circumstances and to seek a better future and a respectable and normal life. The aims of the Research 1. Starting a psychological Counseling program to cognitively manage the psychological Stress of football players. 2. Finding out the effect of the psychological Counseling program on football players to cognitively manage the psychological Stress. Method The researchers used the experimental curriculum and the sample included Al-Hurriya football team players who participate in The Friendship Championship of the local football teams in Ninawa province in the sport season of The team was intentionally chosen for many reasons, among which is the high performance of the team, compared to other participating teams, in addition to the excellent results of the team in the last championship. The sample of the research included (25) players. They were divided into two groups. One of the groups is experimental, which included (13) players, and the other is the control group, which included (12) players. (2) players were excluded from the experimental group because they didn't follow the training program and the didn't attend the training for several times. Other (3) players from the control group were also excluded for the same reasons. The research procedures required using The anxiety scale of competitive state (CSAI_2). (Ratib, 2000) refers to the possibility of using the above mentioned standard to measure the Stress of sports. It is a qualitative standard of anxiety set by Martens and his colleagues in It is interpreted to Arabic by Usama K. Ratib and he applied it on the Iraqi environment (Suleiman, 2001). This standard includes three parts which are the Cognitive anxiety, Somatic anxiety and Self confidence. Self confidence is the opposite of the cognitive anxiety and it is another important factor to control the Stress (Ratib, 2000, 259). The Counseling Program The Construction of an Counseling and psychological program, according to Planning, Programming and Budgeting System, is required to achieve the goal of the program that is represented by the discovering the effect of the Counseling and psychological program on football players to cognitively manage Stress. This system is one of the effective methods of planning. It aims at reaching the maximum efficiency and benefit by the least costs. The Steps of the Counseling program preparation Through these steps, all the details of the required work are identified. They include collecting, analyzing and interpreting the previous information gained. Then, planning to carry out and achieve the goals that emerge from the players' needs (Sham'oon & Majida, 178) and as follows: 1. Identifying the requirements: in this step the planning is made for the programs that are set according to the players' requirements and strength and weakness points. This step includes goals, the dimensions of the program, the total time, the number of the weekly training periods, the time of the training period and the number of the group and the individual sessions. 2. Selecting priorities: The researcher relied on organizing the requirements of the previous step to select the work priorities of the Counseling program. 498

43 3. Identifying Goals: The researcher identified the general and the private goals of the program according to the requirements which are as follows: a. The general goals: they include supporting the players to achieve the best performance through their social and psychological harmony. b. The private goals: they include enabling the players to cognitively manage Stress. 4. Finding out the activities and the programs to achieve the goals The Behavioral Training: It includes performing some behaviors and practicing these behaviors in different situations like (relaxing, breath control, halting the negative thoughts, logical thinking and concentration). The Social Promotion: It includes complementing the players when they do the desired behavior. The Evaluation: The program is evaluated through making comparison between the degrees of the preceding and the posterior tests of the psychological tension standard. The Final Form of the Program: The program in its final form included a number of exercises obtained from the previous steps of preparing the program which are based on the references and the related studies mentioned above and as follows: 1. Some experts in the sport psychology refer to that the primary training on the psychological skills requires training periods of minutes for 3-5 days a week in a period of 3-6 months in order to enable the player to gain and know well the psychological skills. Some of these skills can be performed after the physical training (Alawi, 2002, 207). The time of the daily training period of the current program is set to 30 minutes for three days a week and for (12) weeks for the Counseling program. The period of performing skills, that the program included, is identified before the physical training and as long as the player is participating in the competitions without suspension. There is a coordination with the team coach about these arrangements. 2. Make the players acquainted with using the method of Self Talk for its important role in creating the motivation and its ability to help the players to categorize their skills and direct their thinking to do their duties. 3. Making use of (Ratib, 2002), (Sham'oon & Ismail, 2002) and (Alawi, 2002) points of view in formulating the content of the program which refers to that the negative Self Talk occurs as a response to provocation through the second pattern of Stress which includes (the environmental motivator, negative thoughts, provocation and the psychological Stress). 4. Providing the players with opportunities to recall their success expertise to reach to the perfect level of attraction in order to make the necessary behavioral change. The Contents of the Counseling Program and its Weekly Timing No. The content of the Counseling session Week --- The application of the preceding test Identifying the program (general instructions) 1 st 2 The psychological Stress (reasons and sources) 2 nd 3 The thinking strategies of the sport competitions 3 rd 4 Identifying the special methods to cognitively manage the psychological Stress 4 th 5 Training on imaginative relaxation 5 th 6 Training on halting the negative thoughts 6 th 7 Training on Self talk 7 th 8 The self inspiration 8 th 9 Meditation and calm thoughts 9 th 10 Training on logical thinking 10 th 11 Recalling the successful experiences 11 th 12 The inspirational suggestions 12 th --- The application of the posterior test

44 Results Results will be reviewed and discussed in the light of the statistical data obtained from the research sample. In order to achieve the current aims, the hypothesis of the research has been tested. The research hypothesis is "The psychological Counseling program affects the football players to cognitively manage the psychological Stress after using the Counseling program". To check this hypothesis, the researcher used the T-test to recognize the differences indications between the two groups (the experimental and the control groups) on the standard of competition anxiety 2. after the application of the standard of competition anxiety 2 on the two groups in the preceding test and to achieve the equivalence between the two groups, the posterior test was applied to find out the effect of using the psychological Counseling program on the football players to cognitively manage Stress. Table (1) explains these details: Table 1. The results of the T-test of the two groups (experimental and control) in the posterior test of the cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and the self-confidence. Math Coefficient Variable Group Calculated T Table T Significance medium deflection Cognitive Experimental Significant anxiety Control Somatic Experimental anxiety Control Self Experimental confidence Control Significant Not significant From table (1), the (t) calculated value in the posterior test of somatic and cognitive anxiety of the two groups (experimental and the control) equals (10.44) and (9.18) respectively. It is bigger than the value of the table (t) which is (2.09) in a fault rate of (0.05) and freedom degree of (19). That refers to that there is a significant difference in these two dimensions between the two groups in the posterior test for the benefit of the cognitive anxiety. There is no significant difference in the posterior test of self confidence. The calculated (t) value equals (0.88) and it is less than the value of the table (t) which is (2.09) on a fault rate of (0.05) and with freedom rate of (19). That refers to that there is no significant difference in this dimension between the two groups in the posterior test. Table 2. Shows the results of the T test of the experimental group in the preceding and the posterior tests of the cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and the self confidence Math Coefficient Variable Test Calculated T Table T Significance medium deflection Cognitive Preceding Significant anxiety Posterior Somatic Preceding anxiety Posterior Self Preceding confidence Posterior Significant Significant The table (2) shows that T calculated value in the posterior test of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and the self confidence of the experimental group equals (13.36), (11.33) and (3.05) respectively. When it is compared with table (t) value which is (2.086) on a fault rate of (0.05) and with freedom degree of (20), we notice that there is significant difference between the preceding and the posterior tests of the experimental group in all the dimensions of competition anxiety standard 2 and for the benefit of the posterior test. Through the above discussion and in the field of our primary interpretation of the results shown in the tables (5) and (6), we notice that there is a significant increase in the calculation averages of the standard dimensions in both tables. This increase can due to the difficult environmental and psychological Stress the Iraqi players suffer from for reasons related to their inability to 500

45 accommodate with the life circumstances in addition to the psychological crises that they face because of the differences of the pressuring situations. The researchers in their comment on the results shown in table (1), which show significant differences between the experimental and the control groups of the cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and the self confidence for the benefit of the cognitive anxiety that was referred to by (Ratib, 1995), their comment shows that predominating the independent aspect of the cognitive and somatic anxiety does not conflict with the possibility of their occurring simultaneously even if it greatly relies on the nature of the provocation included in the situation. i.e. there are some situations that can include provocation elements in the situation itself for both types of anxiety. The current results agree with the study of (Murphy & Woolfoik, 1984) which aimed at identifying the effects of two different cognitive interventions on the sport competition and performance anxiety. That study showed that the group of reducing the cognitive behavioral Stress resulted in greater reductions of anxiety during the performance when compared to the other two groups which are provoking the self readiness group and the control group (Murphy & Woolfoik, 1984, 10). Conclusions 1. The efficiency of the Counseling psychological program made by the researcher to cognitively control the psychological Stress of the football players using the significant differences of the preceding and the posterior tests for the experimental and the control groups. 2. It is possible to use the behavioral and cognitive methods in reorganizing the cognitive structure of the players to face the psychological Stress through using a group of scientific and Counseling steps like the self talk, logical thinking, halting the negative thoughts and to have awareness about these negative thoughts. References 1. Alawi, H. (1998). Encyclopedia of psychological tests for athletes, Cairo: Book publishing center. 2. Alawi, H. (2002). Psychology training and athletic competition, Cairo, Arab. Thought House. Egypt.P Murphy, S. & Woolfolk, R. L. (1984). Effect of cognitive intervention on sports anxiety and performance. P Ratib,A (2002). Sports Psychology. 2 nd ed, Cairo, Dar Arab Thought.Egypt.P Ratib, A. (1995). Sports Psychology. 1 st ed, Cairo, Dar Arab Thought. Egypt. 6. Sham'oon, M., & Ismail, M. (2002). Mental training, Arab Thought House, Cairo. Egypt. P Suleiman, S. (2002). Psychological impact of the pilot program to ease the concern of athletes before the start of the games, unpublished Master, College of Education (Ibn Rushd), University of Baghdad. Iraq. 501

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47 SPORTS IDOLS OF JUNIOR ATHLETES Jelena Ilić Republic Institute of Sport, Belgrade, Serbia Abstract The aim of this paper is to identify idols of junior athletes. Establishing the identity of a person that junior athletes label as idols is of great importance during middle adolescence, because the role as behavior models has been taken by models from public life - idols. And based on the identification of idols some conclusions can be made with respect to the system of values some person. The sample included 539 junior athletes (339 boys and 200 girls), 15 to 18 years old. Respondents were engaged in different sports, mostly water polo, soccer, rugby, karate. The independent variables were gender and selected idol and dependent variables were sport, gender, actuality and origin of idol. Young athletes for their sports idols, in most cases elect Novak ðokovic followed by Milorad Čavić, then Usein Bolt, Michael Jordan, Vladimir Vujasinović and Roger Federer. It turns out that the majority of male and female athletes are selected for their idol person that comes out of their sport (χ ² = , df = 4170, p.000), but also that there are some differences in the choice of idols and characteristics of idols in male and female athletes. Keywords: icons, junior sport, Novak ðoković. Introduction High profile professional sports stars enjoy extended coverage in the Serbian media and they influence in society generally, and on the young in particular. At a very obvious level, it is reasonable to suppose that some sports stars inspire young players, since the phenomenon of idolization is a characteristic of adolescence. An idol is someone whose talents, achievements, status, or physical appearance are especially recognized and appreciated by his or her fans. De Ruyter and Conroy (2002) argue that the internalization is a dual process. An ideal becomes part of a person's ideal identity because she desires to be like an ideal person or to poses an ideal character trait. This involves not only a cognitive assessment, the person also deeply desires to become a certain person. Once it is part of her ideal identity, the ideal itself motivates her to strive towards its realization and act accordingly. This is the case when a person believes she is able to influence herself in the direction of her ideals. Danish (2002) has posited, in fact, that rather than serve as role models for youth, elite athletes represent the dreams and fantasies of that audience. In competition, amateur athletes imitate the moves of superstars while donning familiar athletic gear; away from the game, adolescents pay to dress like their favorite players, listen to the same kinds of music, etc. Famous athletes stand to affect the attitudes and behaviors of those who idolize them (Chung, 2003). Research about athletic role models more commonly examines the influence of personally known role models, such as parents, peers, and coaches. As such, little is known about how and why famous or professional athletes are chosen and what influence they have on the athletes who admire them (Harris, 1986). The present study sought to contribute to the literature by addressing several unanswered questions about the prevalence, gender and some other characteristics of sports idols. Method The sample included 539 junior athletes (339 boys and 200 girls), 15 to 18 years old. Respondents were engaged in 30 different sports (mostly water polo, soccer, rugby, karate). 503

48 The instrument was constructed specially for this purpose and consisted of demographic data and question about respondents idol. The independent variables were gender and selected idol and dependent variables were sport, gender, actuality (actual or retrieved) and origin (domestic or foreign) of an idol. Data were analysed by chi-square and frequencies. Results Young athletes for their sports idols, in most cases elect Novak ðoković followed by Milorad Čavić, then Usein Bolt, Michael Jordan, Vladimir Vujasinović and Roger Federer. However, there was statically significant difference according to gender (χ ² = , df = 139, p.000). Girls sports idol is far more Novak ðoković, then Rafael Nadal and Ivan Miljković. The opposite situation is with boys and Michael Jordan, who isn t even mentioned at sample of girls. Also, there is no female athlete among top ten at sample of boys and at total sample. And even at girls sample, only two female athletes were mentioned among top ten names with the very small percent. Table 1. List of sports idols of young athletes Total sample Boys Girls Rank Athlete % Athlete % Athlete % 1 Novak Dokovic 9.8 Michael Jordan 7.5 Novak Dokovic Milorad Cavic 6.7 Vladimir Vujasinovic 7.3 Milorad Cavic 7 3 Usein Bolt 5.2 Milorad Cavic 7.1 Rafael Nadal Michael Jordan 4.6 Novak Dokovic 7.1 Ivan Miljkovic 5 5 Vladimir Vujasinovic 4.6 Usein Bolt 6.8 Roger Federer Roger Federer 4.5 Roger Federer 4.7 Usein Bolt 4 7 Rafael Nadal 3.5 Christiano Ronaldo 3.3 Nemanja Vidic 3 8 Ivan Miljkovic 3.0 Muhammed Ali 3.3 Ana Ivanovic Christiano Ronaldo 2.2 Rafael Nadal 2.5 Jelena Isinbaeva 2 10 Muhammed Ali 2.0 Ivan Miljkovic 1.8 Vladimir Vujasinovic 1 Young athletes select for their idols 89.5 % male athletes and 10.5 % female athletes. It turns out that there is significant difference between male and female athletes according to gender of idol (χ ² = , df = 1, p.000). Both male and female athletes dominantly choose male athlete as their idol, but female athletes have larger percent of female idols. Actually, 8 % of total sample choose female athletes as their idol (2 % male and 6 % female athletes). Picture 1. Number of male and female idols according to gender of respondents 504

49 There is also significant difference between athletes of different branches of sport according to gender of their idol (χ ² = , df = 30, p.000). Young basketball players, weightlifters and savate fighters choose none of female idols. On the other side, the largest percent of female idols were chosen by athletes in athletics (1.5 %) and fencing (1.1 %) It turns out that the majority of male and female athletes are selected for their idol person that comes out of their sport (χ ² = , df = p.000). The results show that athletes from skiing, judo, soccer, water polo, volleyball, basketball, athletics, karate, weight lifting, rugby dominantly choose idol from their sport (χ ² = , df = 870, p.000). On the contrary, athletes from dance and bocca choose idol from swimming and tennis and athletes from kick box, fencing, taekwondo, bowling mainly choose idol from tennis. And there are also some surprises. Athletes from triathlon choose idol from swimming and athletics and savate choose idol from box and swimming. These results are confirmed also taking in consideration idols by the name. For soccer players the main figure is Nemanja Vidić, for water polo players Vladimir Vujasinović (this is the second most convincible choice since more than 1/3 of water polo players included choose him as their idol), for volleyball players Ivan Miljković (this is the third most convincible choice since nearly1/3 of volleyball players included choose him as their idol), for basketball players Michael Jordan (this is the most convincible choice since 1/2 of basketball players included choose him as their idol), for athletics the idol is Usein Bolt and for karatists the most frequent idol is Luca Valdezi. These are clear results which show that young athletes search their idol in the sport which they belong. But there are also some differences (χ ² = , df = 4170, p.000). Athletes from dance choose Milorad Čavić than Novak ðoković, from fencing and taekwondo Novak ðoković and from triathlon Milorad Čavić and Usein Bolt. Idols of young athletes mostly come from tennis, soccer and water polo, but there is also significant difference according to gender (χ ² = df = 29, p.000). For girls, tennis is the most frequent sport from which sports idol coming from. Surprisingly, soccer is on the second place at sample of girls, and they also have some less media covered sports among top ten such as fencing, skiing, badminton and shooting. Table 2. Sports from which sports idol coming from Total sample Boys Girls Rank Sport of Idol % Sport of Idol % Sport of Idol % 1 tennis 22.4 tennis 15 tennis 29 2 soccer 13.8 basketball 13.2 soccer 15 3 water polo 11.2 water polo 12.8 athletics swimming 9.8 swimming 9 volleyball 9 5 basketball 9.6 athletics 7.8 swimming 9 6 athletics 9.6 box 3.3 Water polo volleyball 5.7 rugby 3 fencing 2 8 box 2.4 soccer 2.8 skiing karate 2.0 volleyball 2.5 badminton rugby 2.0 karate 2 shooting 1.5 It turns out that young athletes for their idol choose more often foreign athletes 54 % and in 46 % domestic athletes. There is statistically significant difference between male and female respondents according to origin of chosen idol (χ ² = , df = 1, p.001). Males mainly choose foreign and female respondents domestic athletes as their idols. 505

50 Picture 2. Origin of idols according to gender of respondents There is statistically significant difference between athletes of different branches according to origin of chosen idol (χ ² = , df = 30, p.000). Water polo players, dancers, kick boxers, shooters and bocca players dominantly choose domestic athletes as their idols. It turns out that young athletes for their idol choose more often active athletes 84.1 % and in 15.9 percents of case, retrieved athletes. There is statistically significant difference between male and female respondents according to origin of chosen idol (χ ² = 10.69, df = 1, p.000). Both male and female athletes mainly choose active athletes as their idols, although the percent of active idols is bigger at girls. Picture 3. Status of idols according to gender of respondents Basketball players dominantly choose their idol among retrieved athletes (χ ² = , df = 30, p.000). Discussion Young athletes for their sports idols, in most cases elect Novak Dokovic followed by Milorad Cavic, then Usein Bolt, Michael Jordan, Vladimir Vujasinovic and Roger Federer. Girls sports idol is far more Novak Djokovic, then Rafael Nadal and Ivan Miljkovic. The oposite situation is with boys and Michael Jordan, who isn t even mentioned at sample of girls. Similar result found Melnick and Johnson (2002) at New Zealand sample: superstar Michael Jordan was by far the favorite choice by the entire sample. New Zealand professional rugby league star John Timu, the most popular of the New Zealand choices, finished 506

51 a distant fourth to Jordan. Teigen et al. (2000) at norwegian sample found that speed skater Johan Olav Koss and Eric Cantona were chosen by boys. Also, there is no female athlete among top ten at sample of boys and at total sample. And even at girls sample, only two female athletes were mentioned among top ten names with the very small percent. In a study of young people in Germany by Biskup and Pfister (1999), girls and boys very rarely identified with sports women despite the high profile of Steffi Graf in the German sporting culture. Young athletes select for their idols 89.5 % male athletes and 10.5 % female athletes. Both male and female athletes dominantly choose male athlete as their idol, but female athletes have larger percent of female idols. Actually, 8 % of total sample choose female athletes as their idol (2 % male and 6 % female athletes). Balswick and Ingoldsby (1982) surveyed American adolescents and found that seven male heroes were selected for every one female heroine. Melnick and Jackson (2002) found that 78.4 % of chosen idols were males and 21.6 % females. Cross-tabulations revealed that 89.8 % of the males chose a same-sex idol while just 10.2 % crossed over and chose a female. For females, six times as many (66.8 %) crossed-over and chose a male public figure for their hero; just 13.2 % chose a female. On the contrary, Teigen et al. (2000) found that the same sex ideals were chosen by practically all the boys and by 83% of the girls. While boys almost exclusively mentioned same sex models, about 30% of the girls selected a person of the opposite sex, with the hero from the Lillehammer Olympics, Koss, mentioned almost equally often by girls as by boys. Majority of male and female athletes selected for their idol person that comes out of their sport. The results show that athletes from skiing, judo, soccer, water polo, volleyball, basketball, athletics, karate, weight lifting, rugby dominantly choose idol from their sport. The same situation was among elite young British rugby league players (Fleming et al., 2005). Young athletes for their idol choose more often foreign athletes 54 % and in 46 % domestic athletes. Males mainly choose foreign and female respondents domestic athletes as their idols. Water polo players, dancers, kick boxers, shooters and bocca players dominantly choose domestic athletes as their idols. Melnick and Jackson (2002) found that domestic idol choose 36 % of American and 34.2 % of New Zealand sample. It turns out that young athletes for their idol choose more often active athletes 84.1 % and in 15.9 %, retrieved athletes. Both male and female athletes mainly choose active athletes as their idols, although the percent of active idols is bigger at girls. Basketball players dominantly choose their idol among retrieved athletes. Teigen et al. (2000) found that almost all idols were active. Interestingly, Melnick and Johnson (2002) found that former and current NBA players accounted for 80 % chosen idol at American sample. In this research, idols of young athletes mostly come from tennis, soccer and water polo. So, it might be concluded that there is a general double bind (not only in Serbia) between popularity, frequency and success in certain sport and choice of sports idols among young athletes. References 1. Balswick, J. & Ingoldsby, B. (1982) Heroes and Heroines among American Adolescents, Sex Roles, 8, Biskup, C., & Pfister, G. (1999) I Would Like to be Like her/him : Are Athletes Role Models for Boys and Girls, European Physical Education Review, 5(3), Chung, H. (2003). Sports star v. rock star in globalizing popular culture. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 38, Danish, S.J. (2002). Teaching life skills through sport. In M. Gatz, M. A. Messner, & S. J. Ball- Rokeach (Eds.), Paradoxes of youth and sport (49-60). Albany, NY: SUNY. 5. de Ruyter, D., & Conroy, J. (2002). The Formation of Identity: The Importance of Ideals. Oxford Review of Education, 28(4), Fleming, S., Hardman, A., Jones, C. & Sheridan, H. (2005). Role models among elite young male rugby league players in Britain. European Physical Education Review,11(1),

52 7. Harris, J.C. (1986). Athletic exemplars in context: General exemplar selection patterns in relation to sex, race, and age. Quest, 38, Melnick, M.J., & Jackson, S. J. (2002). Globalization american-style and reference idol selection: The Importance of Athlete Celebrity Others among New Zealand Youth. International Review For The Sociology Of Sport, 37(3 4), Teigen, K. H., Normann, H. T. E., Bjorkheim, J. O., & Helland, S. (2000). Who Would You Most Like to be Like? Adolescents ideals at the beginning and the end of the century. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 44(1),

53 INVESTIGATION OF DIFFERENCES IN SPORT RECREATIONAL INTERESTS AT SAMPLE OF ATHLETES IN EARLY ADOLESCENCE Jelena Ilić Republic Institute of Sport, Belgrade, Serbia Abstract The interests could be simply defined as likes or dislikes attached to specific activities or objects and they are the products of interaction of inherited factors involved in personality development and exogenous factors as opportunity and social evaluation. By now, sport interests were researched sporadically. The aim of this work is to measure recreational sport interests of children in early adolescence. On the sample of 155 athletes (41 female and 114 male), aged 12 to 15 years, attending different sport programs (mostly water polo, fencing, savate, soccer, dance, karate, etc.) sports recreation preference questionnaire was applied. The independent variables were gender and residence and dependent variables were 57 sports recreation activities, evaluated on five-point scale ranging from particularly unattractive sport recreational activity to particularly attractive. The results show that the rank of the most popular as well as least popular sports is the same in all samples, no matter on residence. The most popular sports recreation activities were swimming, tennis and volleyball, and the least popular were wrestling, box and body building. It turns out that there were some gender differences in attractiveness of 20 sports recreational activities. Keywords: gender, recreation, residence Introduction The position of an individual in stratification system may have important effects on many areas of life. Stratification dimensions responsible for the processes of social differentiation can influence the level of sport engagement as well as the preference of different sports (Doupona, 2001). Among them, the characteristics of the place of residence can be predictors of different opinion and behavior related to sport. The distance of the residence from the center of the city can predict the attitude toward particular sport, as was shown by Haddad (2002) researching attitudes toward football. On the other hand, mass media and communication technology bring common experience to large socially mixed and widely dispersed audiences (Haralambos and Holborn, 2000) and can be factor which homogenize values, attitudes or interests of different parts of population. The interests could be simply defined as likes or dislikes attached to specific activities or objects (Greenhaus et al., 2000). As Super and Crites (1962) state, interests are the products of interaction of inherited factors involved in personality development and exogenous factors as opportunity and social evaluation. Knowledge about sport and sport experience can also be the factors influencing interests and sport related behavior. It could be expected that young athletes should know more about different sports than other children. By now, sport recreational preferences among athletes were researched rarely. Recreational activity is very important. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002), physical activity is of the great importance for human health and well being. Physical activity has potentials to build muscles, bones, tendons and joints; maximize the capacity of sensory organs, brain, heart and lungs; increase the flexibility of body; build overall functional capacity; prevent/ reduce the cardiovascular diseases, diabetes II and colon cancer; promote mental health, reduce stress, anxiety and depression; prevent/ reduce osteoporosis; reduce self-destructive and anti-social behavior such as smoking, substance abuse and suicide; enhance memory, learning, understanding and concentration; lift 509

54 self-esteem, build confidence and maintain optimism; enhance teamwork with peers, family and community; promote social interaction and contribute to social integration; promote economic development of family, community and of nation. The aim of this work is to establish the differences of recreational sport interests in athletes in early adolescence from environments with different amount of sport infrastructure and facilities according to their gender. Method The sample included 155 young athletes (114 boys and 41 girls), 12 to 15 years old. Respondents were engaged in 20 different sports (mainly water polo, fencing, savate, soccer, dance, karate). Sample consisted from 46.2 % athletes from Belgrade; 17.3 % from Kragujevac, Novi Sad, Nis and from other towns 36.5 %. The new instrument was designed for purpose of investigation, consisted of demorgaphic data and list of recreation activities. Recreation sport interest questionnaire contained the list of sports to be evaluated on five-point scale. The highest value 5 denoted activity particularly attractive to examine and the lowest value 1 denoted particularly unattractive sport. The list included 57 recreational sports and activities. The independent variables were sex (male and female) and residence. The residence variable was divided in three categories: Belgrade as capital city with the largest amount of sport capacities an opportunities as much as number of sports so as sports infrastructure: three largest cities with a solid number of sports and activities (Novi Sad, Kragujevac and Niš) and smaller towns all over the country with modest sport capacities. Dependent variables were 57 sports recreation activities. Data were analysed by t test for independent samples and ANOVA. Results There were no statistically significant difference between three groups of athletes according to residence, but there were some differences between young male and female athletes. Girls are more interested in jogging, rolling, fitness, hiking, badminton, skateboard, ice scating, power walking, marathon, darts, half marathon, equestrian and boys prefere more basketball and carting. It is also interesting that swimming is the most prefered sport, no matter on residence place, nor gender. However, among top ten boys preferences of recreational activities there are no fitness, rolling and hiking and among girls preferences of recreational activities there are no basketball, futsal and soccer. Table 1. Rank of recreational activities according to residence and gender Rank Total Sample Boys Girls Sport M SD M SD M SD M SD Sport M SD Sport M SD 1 swimming swimming swimming tennis tennis jogging jogging*** basketball tennis volleyball futsal fitness futsal volleyball cycling basketball*** table tennis volleyball table tennis jogging rolling cycling soccer beach volleyball beach volleyball cycling badminton soccer beach volleyball hiking handball handball ice skating rolling** skiing table tennis fitness* diving diving skiing billiard power walking diving rolling marathon water skiing water skiing skateboard hiking** carting soccer billiard fitness futsal badminton** rowing basketball skateboard*** snowboard alpinism

55 Table 1. Rank of recreational activities according to residence and gender (CONT) Rank Total Sample Boys Girls Sport M SD M SD M SD M SD Sport M SD Sport M SD 21 rowing golf handball snowboard bowling water skiing ice skating** hiking skiing golf shooting snowboard shooting skateboard shooting bowling badminton darts alpinism archery half marathon carting*** ice skating billiard archery alpinism golf power walking* moto-sport archery marathon* sailing rowing sailing karate sailing karate power walking karate moto-sport relly bowling darts*** marathon equestrian half marathon** squash judo squash darts orienteering relly kayak fencing orienteering rafting aikido fencing rugby taekwondo kayak football moto-sport aikido fencing nordic skiing judo half marathon squash rafting orienteering kendo taekwondo taekwondo rafting equestrian*** aikido kayak football judo canoeing rugby field hockey carting nordic skiing canoeing footbal canoeing bocca weightlifting field hockey nordic skiing relly bocca equestrian bodybuilding kendo weightlifting field hockey power lifting kendo bocca bodybuilding boxing rugby boxing bodybuilding boxing wrestling wrestling wrestling *p<.001 ** p<.01 *** p<.05 The most unprefered sport at total sample, no matter on place of residence, nor gender, is wrestling. Also, among unprefered recreational activities are bocca, weightlifting and bodybuilding. Discussion Bosnar et al. (2004) on the sample of male elementary pupils aged years found that the rank of the most popular as well as least popular sports is the same in both samples. Soccer was the most popular sport, auto - moto sport was the second, cycling and basketball were the third and fourth, in municipal as well as small town sample. The least popular were also the same in both samples rhythmic gymnastics and dance. However, discriminant analysis shows that differences do exist. Small town boys are more ready to accept non-elite bowls and box, while metropolitan boys more often prefer typically urban skating, rather new baseball, and fashionable scuba diving. In this research there were no differences between three categories of subjects according their place of living. But, in comparing with results of Bosnar et al. (2004), there are some interesting data. Total sample of young male athletes in this research more prefer swimming, rolling, volleyball, bowling and tennis and total sample of Croatian pupils of identical generation more prefer soccer, boxing and weightlifting. The identical level of preference both sample show for fencing, handball, diving and equestrian. The influence of sport experience on future exercise behavior should not be underestimated. In a follow-up study on attitudes and exercise habits of alumni from colleges with varying degrees of physical education activity programs it was shown that students from colleges with higher demands demonstrate 511

56 more positive exercise attitudes and behaviors when surveyed 2 to 11 years after graduation (Brynteson and Adams II, 1993).Due to human creativity and new technologies the number of new sports and recreational activities increases every day. Due to globalization processes the number of sports which once were popular in a particular culture become known world-wide, enabling each person to find an optimal activity that meets individual psychological and biological needs. The questions arise, how the perception of recreational activity is formed and what its mental representation looks like. Athletes are positively selected regarding sport activities and motoric abilities and usually better informed in that field than general population and so they may positively contribute to perception of certain recreational activities. Their willingness to actively participate in new recreative activities can be explained by their physical abilities and personality characteristics differing from the rest of population, but can also represent better knowledge and positive attitudes toward new sports and recreational activities. References 1. Bosnar, K. Gošnik, J., Hošek-Momirović, A., & Prot, F. (2004). The comparison of sport interests in metropolitan and small town elementary school boys. In R. Pišot, V. Štemberger, J. Zurc, & A. Obid, (Eds.), 3rd International Symposium A Child in Motion Abstracts and Proceedings (48-49). Slovenija: Kranjska Gora. 2. Brynteson, P., & Adams, T. M. II (1993). The effects of conceptually based fhysical education programs on attitudes and exercise habits og college alumni after 2 to 11 years of followup. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, Doupona, M. (2001). Influence of some aspects of parental socio-economic status on the attitude towards sports. Kinesiology, 33(1), Greenhaus, J.H., Callanan, G.A., & Godshalk, V.M. (2000). Career management. Orlando: Harcourt. 5. Haddad, H. (2002). Odnos prema nogometu djece osnovnoškolskog uzrasta. Zagreb: Kineziološki fakultet. 6. Haralambos, M., & Holborn, M. (2000). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. London: Collins. 7. Super, D.E., & Crites, J.O. (1962). Appraising vocational fitness (2nd Edition). New York: Harper & Row. 8. World Health Organization (2002). Young people and physical activity. /esa/socdev/unyin/news/workout.doc 512

57 EFFECT OF SOME PSYCHO-SOCIAL FACTORS ON THE MOTIVATIONAL READINESS FOR CHANGE IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY HABITS AMONG YOUNG SCHOOL GIRLS AGED 15 TO 18 Lenče Aleksovska-Veličkovska, Vujica Živković, Milan Naumovski, Daniela Šukova-Stojmanovska and Serjoža Gontarev Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Physical Culture, Skopje, R. Macedonia Abstract This research was carried out on a group of 440 female subjects aged 15 to 18, in order to determine the effect of some psychosocial factors on the motivational readiness for change in physical activities among young people. For realization research were used 9 variables for determination of the psychosocial factors and one variable for determination of the level of physical activity.the research findings show that educational programs and strategies should be directed toward increasing self-efficacy, trusting one s own abilities (i.e.self-confidence), increasing the level of perceived benefits from physical activity, reduction of barriers, increasing social support for family and friends, as well as offering activities that are chosen by the young people, which they enjoy. Keywords: theoretical models, self-efficacy, social support, perceived barriers and benefits Introduction The theoretical models that explain human behavior are in their initial phase of development. However, there is information that shows the manner by which humans behave. Several theoretical models explain physical activity and factors that affect it. Some of the theories and models were initially created to explain physical activity and the factors that affect it, while others have been created in order to intervene and raise the level of physical activity of the population. Here are the most famous models explaining physical activity and the effect of factors on it: Learning Theories (Skinner, 1953), Health Belief Model (Hochbaum 1958; Rosenstock 1960, 1966, 1988), Decision making theories (Janis & Manna, 1977; Prochaska & Velicer, 1997), Transtheoretical Model (Prochaska & DiClemente 1982, 1984; Prochaska, DiClemente, Norcross 1992), Theory of Planned Behavior (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975; Ajzen & Fishbein 1980), Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura 1977, 1986), Social Support (Israel & Schurman 1990) и Ecological Approaches (McLeroy et al.1988; CDC 1988; Stokols 1992). This research is based on the theoretical concept Transtheoretical Model. The model is founded on the fact that the change of behavior undergoes 5 phases (levels of motivational readiness for change) as follows: pre-contemplation phase (the individual has no intention of changing his/her behavior in the near future), contemplation phase (the individual is contemplating on the problem), preparation phase (the individual may have set herself/himself a goal to change), action phase (the individual has changed his/her behavior in the last six months), maintenance phase (the new behavior is automated, the individual feels good, and puts less conscious effort) Prochaska & Di Clemente 1982, 1984). Going through this process of these phases, the individual moves backward and forward until s/he reaches the last level, the maintenance phase (automated behavior). This is the reason for best describing the phases of change as spiral or cyclical, rather or than linear. In this model, people use different processes for change as they move from one phase to another. According to this theory, the intervention is aimed to fit the appropriate phase and the particular individual (the intervention is specific for each phase and individual). The 513

58 changes that occur step by step while going from one phase into another, will lead to a greater effect rather than directly encouraging the individual to start acting. The Transtheoretical Model is in its core multidimensional, as it includes other components such as: moving into individual phases, cognitive, affective and behavioral changes, the decision process (for and against the change), perceived self-efficiency and successful change of the new behavior. These items are conceptualized as factors that allow an easier understanding of the behavior change throughout these five individual phases. The model has been described as transtheoretical, since it includes several cognitive and motivational theories, the social learning theory, the social-cognitive theory and the theory of planned behavior. With reference to the aforementioned, the objective of the research which is to determine the effect of some psycho-social factors on the motivational readiness for change of physical activity habits among young schoolgirls aged 15 to 18. Method The research has been carried out on 440 young females aged 15 to 18. The trial was conducted in several public high schools from various municipalities in the city of Skopje, Republic of Macedonia. In order to realize the research objectives, 9 psycho-social variables have been applied. They are the following: perceived self-efficiency ; (Marcus, Selby, Niaura & Rossi, 1992); "perceived physical competence"; (Sallis еt. al. 1999a); "perceived benefits to physical activity"; (Sallis еt. al. 1989, Rovniak at. al 2002); "perceived barriers to physical activity"; (Sallis еt. al. 1989, Cheng at. al. 2003; Kenneth еt al. 2005); "physical activity enjoyment"; "enjoyment of physical education classes"; (Sallis еt. al. 1999); "physical activity social support for family"'; "physical activity social support for friend"; "how many of your friends are physically active" (Prochaska, Rodgers & Sallis, 2002); In order to determine the level of physical activity (the phase of motivational readiness for change of the physical activity habits), an instrument constructed by Marcus et. al. was applied (Marcus et. al., 1992) entitled Stages of Exercise Behavior Change (SEBC) scale. The instrument is based on the Transtheoretical Model and classifies the subjects into five (5) categories depending on whether they are practicing, how long they have been practicing or how long intend to practice physical activity. The first category is named pre-contemplation phase (pre-contemplation - the subject is physically inactive and has no intention of becoming physically active in the near future), the second category is the contemplation phase (contemplation- the subject is physically inactive, but is contemplating on becoming physically active), the third category is the readiness phase (the subject is occasionally physically active and is ready to begin physical activity right away), the fourth category is the action phase (the subject has been physically active on a regular basis less than six months) and the last category is the maintenance phase (the subject has been physically active on a regular basis more than six months), The reliability of the instrument checked with the test-retest method throughout the research shows (K= ) The validity of the instrument has been determined in comparison with direct measurements of physical activity and based on the maximal oxygen consumption VO2, whereby the same was sufficient (Cardinal, 1995; Marcus, Simkin, 1993, 1997; Wyse 1995). In order to determine which psycho-social factors are significant for the differentiation of the subjects with different levels of motivational readiness for change of physical activity habits, multivariant and univariant analysis of the variants (MANOVA and ANOVA) and a LSD-test were applied. The normal distribution of the applied variables was determined by using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Method. Results Figure 1 illustrates classification of the subjects into 5 (five) categories, according to the motivational readiness for change of physical activity habits. The figure shows that 12,1% of the subjects are in the pre-contemplation phase (subjects that are physically inactive and do not contemplate on the need of physical activity) 27,8 % of the subjects are in the contemplation phase (subjects that are physically inactive, but contemplate on the need of physical activity), 36,4% of the subjects are in the preparation phase (subject that are physically active occasionally and are prepared to start with regular physical 514

59 activity right away), 12,3% of the subjects are in the action phase (subjects that have been physically active less than 6 months), and 11,4% of the subjects are in the maintenance phase (subjects that have been physically active more than 6 months) , , ,07 12,3 11, PC C P A M Figure 1. The classification of respondents into 5 (five) categories according to their motivation readiness to change habits for physical activity In order to determine which psycho-social factors are significant for differentiating subjects that have different motivational readiness for change of physical activity habits, multivariant analysis of the variant (MANOVA), separating age (age has been treated as a covariant of in order to neutralize its possible effect) was used. Classification (categorization) of the subjects into 5 (five) categories was carried out previously, using the Transtheoretical Model. The results from the multivariant and univariant analysis of the variant and the size of the partial effect on the determinants (partial n 2 ) are presented on table 1. The result analysis clearly shows that in this whole system of variables that have been treated, there are significant differences on the multivariant level (Q=.00). Consequently, the distinct contribution of each variable in defining these differences was examined. By examining the arithmetic mean and the appropriate values of the statistically relevant level, it may be observed that a statistically significant difference is present with all the psycho-social factors (determinants) with the highest degree of probability (Q=.00). The partial effect of the determinants n 2 is ranged between.09 and.31 and shows a medium to high effect. Greatest effect in determining the differences show variables "degree of perceived self-efficiency", "confidence in their abilities" and "enjoyment in physical activities" 515

60 Table 1. Multivariant and univariant differences in psychosocial factors among students with various levels of physical activity Wilks'Lambda Rao's R df 1 df 2 Q 0,44 10, Varijabli Group M SD F Q n 2 1 Perceived self-efficiency 2 Perceived physical competence 3 4 Perceived benefits to physical activity Perceived barriers to physical activity 5 Physical activity enjoyment 6 Enjoyment of physical education classes Physical activity social support for family Physical activity social support for friend How many of your friends are physically active 10 Decisional Balance * PC 21,09 5,35 C 24,35 4,82 P 27,79 4,85 A 31,02 4,62 M 31,90 4,73 PC 3,04 1,22 C 3,45 1,05 P 4,01 1,10 A 4,85 1,11 M 5,46 1,07 PC 82,94 13,21 C 87,91 8,58 P 89,48 8,30 A 93,94 7,58 M 94,64 8,43 PC 59,34 12,41 C 54,87 11,53 P 48,79 11,07 A 40,72 9,15 M 39,56 10,12 PC 2,66 1,02 C 3,06 0,96 P 3,51 0,83 A 3,59 0,79 M 4,02 0,82 PC 2,98 0,97 C 3,65 0,64 P 4,06 0,63 A 4,24 0,58 M 4,56 0,54 PC 10,77 3,70 C 11,87 4,13 P 13,54 3,73 A 14,89 3,72 M 15,36 4,36 PC 7,55 2,96 C 9,02 3,10 P 9,87 3,10 A 11,30 3,01 M 10,24 3,42 PC 1,13 1,27 C 1,36 1,03 P 1,74 1,34 A 2,35 1,08 M 2,34 1,42 PC -14,29 18,82 C -5,60 12,54 P 0,82 13,40 A 11,80 10,09 M 13,44 13,37 49,44,00 0,31 45,94,00 0,30 14,79,00 0,12 34,68,00 0,24 18,87,00 0,15 47,10,00 0,30 13,39,00 0,11 10,70,00 0,09 11,45,00 0,10 42,38,00 0,28 Note. Q = ; M = Mean; SD = standard deviation; F-ratio; Q = statistical significant difference of F; n 2 = Partial eta-squared; PC= Stage Precontemplation; C= Stage Contemplation; P= Stage Preparation; A= Stage Action; M= Stage Maintenance. * Decisional Balance is an index which represents the difference between variables 'degree of perceived upon beneficial physical activity' and 'degree of perceived barriers toward physical activity' transformed into T-values. (Janis & Mann, 1977, Prochaska & Velicer, 1997). 516

61 Subjects that are in the pre-contemplation and contemplation phase, demonstrate a balance index (Figure 2) with a negative prefix, while with subjects that are in the action and maintenance phase the balance index has a positive prefix. Subjects that are in the readiness phase, show balance between the perception of barriers and benefits. The figure shows that the balance between the benefits and barriers changes, depending on the level of motivational readiness for change of physical activity habits. Subjects that are in the precontemplation than and contemplation phase find more reasons against, rather than for commencing regular physical activity (barriers dominate benefits), whereas subjects that are in the action and maintenance phase find more reasons for rather than against practicing physical activities (benefits dominate barriers). The figure illustrates that by progressing from one phase to another, the index increases linearly until it stabilizes with the transmission from the action the maintenance phase. 15,00 10,00 5,00 0,00 PC C P A M -5,00-10,00-15,00-20,00 Figure 2. Decisional Balance (dissimilarity between the variables benefits and barriers transformed into T-values) in distinct phases of the physical activity level Discussion The results from this research provide preliminary information on the effect and the correlation of psychosocial factors with physical activity among young people. By analyzing the obtained results and comparing them with similar international research, it may be concluded that 23,7 of the subjects do regular physical activity (subjects in the action and maintenance phase), 36,4% of the subjects exercise occasionally (subjects in the preparation phase) and 39,9 of the subjects do not exercise in their spare time (subjects in the pre contemplation and contemplation phase). The data analysis shows that a large percentage (76,3%) of the young female population aged 15 to 18 does regular (recommended) physical activity. The research carried out by Keareny et al on subjects aged 15 to 24 in 15 countries throughout the European Union, indicates that around 30% of the young people in the EU countries do not get any physical activity, 22% of the subjects do occasional physical activity and 46% of the subjects do regular physical activity (subjects in the action and maintenance phase). De Bordeaudhuij et. al. 2005, studied physical activity among Belgian teenagers and affirmed that 28% of the subjects do not do physical activity (subjects in the pre contemplation and contemplation phase), 21% of the subjects do occasional physical activity and 51% of Belgian teenagers do regular physical activity (subjects in the action and maintenance phase). Gustavo de Sá e Souza & Maria de Fátima da Silva Duarte, 2005, studied physical activity among Brazilian teenagers aged 14 to 19, which were subjects taken from 29 private schools. The research results showed that 26,2% of the subjects do not do physical activity, 35,4% do occasional physical activity and 38,3% do regular physical activity. Nig and Cournea, 1998 studied physical activity among Canadian teenagers aged 13 to 19. The results showed that 6,2% of the subjects were in the pre contemplation and contemplation phase, 28,7% of the subjects were in the preparation phase and 65% of the subjects did regular physical activity (subjects in the action and maintenance phase). 517

62 Thorpe et. al. 2006, studied the physical activity level among year old Australian teenagers. The results show that 30% of the subjects do not do any physical activity, 23% were in the preparation phase, and 46% of the subjects did regular physical activity (subjects in the action and maintenance phase). The comparative analysis illustrates that young people from the Republic of Macedonia have the lowest level of physical activity (the smallest percentage of our young people do the recommended physical activity), compared to young people in other countries where similar research has been carried out. Research findings indicate that self-efficiency and self-confidence, one of the foundations of the Social Cognitive Theory, are strong predictors of physical activity among girls. The same has been confirmed with many international studies carried out on subjects of the same age by Reynolds et.al. 1990; Trost. et.al. 1996; Zakarian et.al. 1989; Biddle & Armstrong 1992; Biddle and Goudas 1996; Dempsey, Kimiecik, Horn 1993; Ferguson et.al. 1989; Tappe, Duda, Menges-Ehrnwald The degree of perceived benefits of physical activity (the belief about the benefit of physical activity) is also a significant predictor of physical activity. The same was confirmed with a research carried out among preadolescents by Ferguson et.al., Tappe, Duda, Menges Ehrnwald 1990, Zakarian et.al The principal motive for practicing physical activities among girls has to do with getting in shape (the image about their body). The degree of perceived barriers is in a negative correlation with the physical activity of young females. Stucky-Roop and DiLorenzo 1993, Tappe, Duda, Menges-Ehrnwald 1990, and Zakarian et.al also confirm this in their research. The principal barriers among girls are lack of time (too many school assignments, being busy), lack of energy and lack of social support. With subjects that are in the precontemplation phase, the dominating internal barriers are I am not the sports type, I am too tired, lack of motivation and interest dominate, whereas with subjects that are in the maintenance phase, external barriers such as lack of time and parent support are predominant. Physical activity enjoyment, which is the basis of the Intrinsic Motivation Theory is a predictor of school girls physical activity as well. Research carried out by Stucky-Roop and DiLorenzo 1993 also confirms this. Social support (from parents and peers) is a significant determinant that has a direct or indirect effect upon physical activity. A variety of research to date on children, preadolescents and adolescents points to the same. The impact of parent social support has been confirmed in the research carried out by Anderssen & Wold 1992, Biddle & Goudas 1996; Butcher 1985 and Zakarian et.al 1994, while the impact of peer social support in the research of Anderrsen & Wold 1992, and Zakarian et.al In addition, group activity (the number of friends that exercise) is associated with the physical activity of the individual. Based on the results from this research, it is evident that educational programs and strategies should be directed towards raising of self-efficiency faith in one s physical abilities, raising the degree of perceived benefits of physical activity, reducing perceived barriers, increasing social support from the close ones (parents and friends), as well as offering young girls activities that they will enjoy and choose themselves. According to this model, the objectives, the educational programs and strategies should be different depending on the phase of motivational readiness of the subject to change her physical activity habits, as shown on table 3. Different approaches, such as: individual work, group work, workshops, consulting, etc. may be utilized. The chief promoter of such educational programs and strategies should be the school, but diverse governmental and non-governmental organizations, family, the local government and the state with a widespread media campaign, should also take part. Changes in schools should focus on curriculum alteration, thus including courses about physical activity and its importance, new kinds of physical activity in the curriculum, improvement of the financial structure (facilities, P.E. equipment, etc.). Although the Transtheoretical Model has been somewhat criticized, it is nevertheless one of the most significant attempts to effectuate various strategies for physical activity change and other health attitudes. This leads to the conclusion that the Transtheoretical Model is applicable to different ways of behavior and diverse populations, such as the female high school population, which suggests a possibility for high degree of generalization. This model, unifying several theories, is aimed at helping people to 518

63 better understand, predict and control their behavior. It is exactly that integrative approach, which enhances this model above the restrictions of some theories and models, in order to create a comprehensible approach to the change of behavior and habits. Table 2. Physical activity promotion strategies in young people, depending on the phase of motivational readiness Phase of motivational readiness Precontemplation Contemplation Preparation Action Maintenance Objective To get your client thinking abaut physical activity To encourge your client to start being physical activity To encourge your client to be regularly physical activity To help your client maintain this physical activity habit over time To help your client prepare for ony future setbacks and increase enjoyment of physical activity Specific Strategy - instigating the subject to learn more about the benefit of physical activity; - reading journals, watching videos and talking with teachers about physcial activity; - making a list of potential benefits that might prevent the examinee from commencing a physical activity, and next determining in what way are these benefits important for him/her; - instigating the subject to visit a fitness or sports club and watch other people exercise, in order to boost self-confidence, self-efficiency and intimacy; - indentifying barriers that prevent the subject from starting a physcial activity (e.g. lack of time) and finding a strategy for overcome them (managing spare time etc.); - working out a program and plan for starting with physcial activity (when, where, what activity and who with); - setting the initial goal (e.g. 5 min running) and carrying out the goal; - prompting the subject to use a log by marking the progress and the assigned goal - prompting the subject to award him/herself when the goal has been reached and the level of phycial activity increased; - placing reminders in several places, that will remind the subject to exercise (e.g. sneakers in front of the door, etc.) - identidying possible factors that may prevent the subject from doing physical activity in the future and creating a plan to overcome these factors; - helping the subject to carry out the assigned goal; - consulting the subject on how to get back on track, after taking a break from physical activity; - physical activity should always be interesting, new activities should be tried, listening to music or watching TV while exercising, exercising with someone; - prompting the subject to promote physical activity among peers (motivating them to be physically active). Conclusion Based on the results obtained, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. Most psycho-social factors (variables) to some extent have an effect on the motivational readiness for change of physical activity habits among young people. Students that have a higher degree of self-efficiency and higher self-confidence, enjoy physical activity more, have a lower level of barriers, and perceive greater social support by friends and parents, have a higher level of physical activity. 2. The research findings indicate that the Transtheoretical Model, which links several theories is applicable and can be used to predict, control and change behavior (change physical activity) among the high school population. 519

64 References 1. Anderssen, N., & Wold, B. (1992). Parental and peer influences on leisure-time physical activity in young adolescents. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63, Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Towards a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 4. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social-cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 5. Biddle, S., & Armstrong, N. (1992). Children s physical activity: An exploratory study of psychological correlates. Social Science & Medicine, 34(3), Biddle, S., & Goudas, M. (1996). Analysis of children s physical activity and its association with adult encouragement and social cognitive variables. Journal of School Health, 66, Biddle, S., Gorely, T., & Stensel, D. (2004). Health-enhancing physical activity and sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22(8), Bouchard, C., Shephard, R.J., & Stephens, T. (1994). Physical Activity, Fitness, and Health: International Proceedings and Consensus Statement. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers. 9. De Bourdeaudhuij, I.D., Teixeira, P.J, Cardon, G, & Deforche, B. (2005). Environmental and psychosocial correlates of physical activity in Portuguese and Belgian adults. Public Health Nut, 8(7), Butcher, J. (1985). Longitudinal analysis of adolescent girls participation in physical activity. Sociology of Sport Journal, 2, Cardinal, B.J. (1995). Behavioral and biometric comparisons of the preparation, action, and maintenance stages for exercise. Research, Theory, and Practice, 11, Cheng, K.Y., Cheng, P.G., Mak, K.T., Wong, S.H., Wong, Y.K., & Yeung, E.W. (2003). Relationships of perceived benefits and barriers to physical activity, physical activity participation and physical fitness in Hong Kong female adolescents. Journal of Sports Medicine Physical Fitness, 43, Dempsey, J.M., Kimiecik, J.C., & Horn, T.S. (1993). Parental influence on children s moderate to vigorous physical activity participation: an expectancy-value approach. Pediatric Exercise Science, 5, Ferguson, K.J., Yesalis, C.E., Pomrehn, P.R., & Kirkpatrick, M.B. (1989). Attitudes, knowledge, and beliefs as predictors of exercise intent and behavior in school children. Journal of School Health, 59, Gustavo de Sá e Souza, & Maria de Fátima da Silva Duarte (2005). Behavior change stages related to physical activity in adolescents. Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina do Exercício e do Esporte, 11(2), Hochbaum, G.M. (1958). Public participation in medical screening programs: a sociopsychological study. Washington, DC: U.S. Public Health Service. 17. Israel, B.A., & Schurman, S.J. (1990). Social support, control, and the stress process. In: Glanz K, Lewis FM, Rimer BK, editors. Health behavior and health education: theory, research, and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, Janis, I.L., & Mann, L. (1977). Decision making: a psychological analysis of conflict, choice, andcommitment. New York: Collier Macmillan. 19. Kearney, J.M., Graaf, C., Damkjaer, S., & Engstrom L.M. (1999). Stages of change towards physical activity in a nationally representative sample in the European Union. Public Health Nutrition, 2(1a),

65 20. Kenneth, R.A., Dwyer, J.M., Goldenberg, E., Fein, A., Yoshida, K.K., & Boutilier, M. (2005). Male adolescents reasons for participating in physical activity, barriers to participation and suggestions for increasing participation. Adolescence, 40, Marcus, B.H., & Forsyth, L. (2003). Motivating People to Be Physically Active. Champaing: Human Kinetics. 22. Marcus, B.H., & Simkin, L.R. (1994). The transtheoretical model:applications to exercise behavior. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 26, Marcus, B.H., Banspach, S.W., Lefebvre, R.L., Rossi, J.S., Carleton, R.A., & Abrams, D.B. (1992). Using the stages of change model to increase the adoption of physical activity among community participants. American Journal Health Promot, 6, Marcus, B.H., Eaton, C.A., Rossi, J.S., & Harlow, L.L. (1994). Self-efficacy, decision-making, and stages of change: an integrative model of physical exercise. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, Marcus, B.H., Selby, V.C., Niaura, R.S., & Rossi, J.S. (1992). Self-efficacy and the stages of exercise behavior change. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63, Marcus, B.H., & Simkin, L.R. (1993). The stages of exercise behavior. Journal Sports Medicine Physical Fitness, 33, McLeroy, K.R., Bibeau, D., Steckler, A., & Glanz, K. (1988).An ecological perspective on health promotion programs. Health Education Quarterly, 15, Nigg, C.R., & Courneya, K.S. (1998). Transtheoretical model: Examining adolescent exercise behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health, 22, Prochaska, J.O., & DiClemente, C.C. (1982). Transtheoretical therapy: toward a more integrative model of change. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 20, Prochaska, J.O., & DiClemente, C.C. (1984). The transtheoretical approach: crossing traditional boundaries of change. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press 31. Prochaska, J.O., Rodgers, M.W., & Sallis, J.F. (2002). Association of parent and peer support with adolescent physical activity. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 73, Prochaska, J.O., & Velicer, W.F. (1997). The transtheoretical model of health behavior change. American Journal Health Promot, 12, Reynolds, K.D., Killen, J.D., Bryson, S.W., Maron, D.J., Taylor, C.B., Maccoby N., & Farquhar, J.W. (1990). Psychosocial predictors of physical activity in adolescents. Preventive Medicine, 19, Rovniak, L.S., Anderson, E.S., Winett, R.A., & Stephens, R.S. (2002). Social cognitive determinants of physical activity in young adults: a prospective structural equation analysis. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 24, Sallis, J. F., Calfas, K. J., Alcaraz, J. E., Gehrman, C., & Johnson, M.F. (1999). Potential mediators of change in a physical activity promotion course for university students: Project GRAD. Annual Behaver Medicine, 21, Sallis, J. F., Hovell, M. F., Hofstetter, C. R., Faucher, P., Elder, J.P., Blanchard, J., Caspersen, C.J., Powell, K.E., & Christenson, G.M. (1989). A multivariate study of determinants of vigorous exercise in a community sample. Preventive Medicin, 18, Sallis, J.F., & Owen, N. (1999). Physical Activity and Behavioral Medicine. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 38. Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Free Press. 39. Suminski, R.R., & Petosa, R. (2002). Stages of change among ethnically diverse college students. Journal of American College Health, 51, Tappe, M.K., Duda, J.L, & Menges-Ehrnwald, P. (1990). Personal investment predictors of adolescent motivation orientation toward exercise. Canadian Journal of Sport Sciences, 15,

66 41. Thorpe, K., Dowson, M., Martin, A.J., Craven, R.G., Richards, G.E., Marsh, H.W., Williams, M.R., & Parker, P.D. (2006). Effects of Year of Schooling, Gender, and Self-efficacy on High School Students Participation in Physical Activity: Social and Educational Implications SELF Research Centre, University of Western Sydney, Australia. 42. Trost, S.G., Pate, R.R., Dowda, M., Saunders, R., Ward, D.S., & Felton, G. (1996). Gender differences in physical activity and determinants of physical activity in rural fifth grade children. Journal of School Health, 66(4), Wallace, L. S., & Buckworth, J. (2001). Application of the transtheoretical model to exercise behavior among nontraditional college students. American Journal of Health Education, 32, Wyse, J., Mercer, T., Ashford, B., Buxton, K., & Gleeson, N. (1995). Evidence for the validity and utility of the stages of exercise behavior change scale in young adults. Health Education Research, 10, Zakarian, J.M., Hovell, M. F., Hofstetter, C.R., Sallis, J.F., & Keating, K.J. (1994). Correlates of vigorous exercise in a predominantly low socio-economic status and minority high school population. Preventive Medicine, 23(3),

67 SPORTING HABITS AND SPORT MOTIVATION AMONG VOLUNTEERS IN HUNGARY Nóra Szilágyi 1, Noémi Keresztes 1, Zsófia Rázsó 1, Balázs Kiss 1 and Csaba Varga 2 1 Institute of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Gyula Juhász Faculty of Education, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary 2 Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Neurosciences, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary Abstract Detecting the motivational background of adults leisure time physical activity is a key point according to the long term positive attitudes towards physically active lifestyle, since after the adolescent period, the level of physical activity declines dramatically, particularly during adulthood, which has a number of unbeneficial health effects later. Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect data in Szeged, Hungary, in Our sample was based on voluntary participants from three subsamples, namely Diet Club, Women s Gymnastics and Together Easier. Our Organized Sport Program lasted four months and involved exercising three times a week. 187 (N 1 ) participants took part in the first phase of the program. All of them filled in a questionnaire at the start of the program. The mean age was years (S.D.), 82,9% of the samples were women and 17,1% were men. Questionnaire included items on sociodemographics, health behavior, leisure time activities, psychological and psychosocial health, sporting habits and their social influences, and sport motivation factors (EMI). Most of the respondents (28%) were inactive before the program, but there was an active women gymnast group also. Most of them did physical activity on a hobby level, and they prefered sporting alone (42,7%). At the end of the program we experienced some significant changes according to sporting habits. We have found that in this life period sporting habits were less influenced by social influences than earlier, so mapping the motivational structure is very important. Using factor analysis we separated nine factors with good reliability values (Cronbanch s alpha) covering extrinsic and intrinsic motivations. However, we decided to use four factors only because of overlapping items. Most of the factors prefered motivation factors in connection with health and well-being. Based on our results and experience we supposed that organized recreational programs could be effective in a homogen (according to the sociodemographic background) group. Keywords: volunteers, sporting habits, sport motivation, adults Introduction Nowadays we can see predominance of non-infectious diseases, which is mainly attributed to lifestyle factors. (Doll és Peto, 1980). Therefore there has been an increased interest in behaviouralepidemiological studies, since inactivity and obesity are two important behavioural-epidemiological risk factors. (Csoboth, 2001). In modern societies sedentary lifestyle and resultant inactivity have become the leading causes of morbidity. This health risk is on the increase worldwide. (Livingstone, 2001). Obesity has been shown to be a significant risk factor for cardiovascular dieases, hypertension and diabetes, therefore it is a significant public health problem. (Freedman et al., 1999). Studies have found that regular exercise has an essential role in preventing obesity and reducing body weight, thus more attention is paid to adult exercise habits (Keim, et al., 2004). Increase in the level of physical activity may lead to dramatic improvement in health conditions (Chinn et al., 1999). 523

68 Method We started data collection in January and February, Participation in our Organized Sport Program was voluntary. The program included three different activity fields ( Diet Club, Women s Gymnastics and Together Easier ), all of which focused on losing weight through exercise. Questionnaires were filled in by the participants. Questionnaires were constructed using interdisciplinary approaches and included items on health behaviour (preventive and risk behaviour), leisure activities, emotional and psychosocial status, exercise habits and related social effects, and sport motivation factors. The program lasted for four months and involved exercising 3 times a week. 187 (N 1 ) participants took part in the first phase of the program. In the second phase 122 (N 2 ) persons were followed up until the end of the program. The mean age was years (S.D.), 82,9% of the samples were women and 17,1% were men. Results Analysing the frequency of exercise we found that 41.9 % of participants did regular exercise before the program. However, the number of individuals who did not do any sports previously was also high (28%) (Figure 1). Looking at the figures (Figures 2) for time spent on exercising we found that the majority of participants spent 2-3 hours on sport (34,2%), however, the number of previously inactive participants is also remarkable (26,6%). Figure 3 shows organisation of exercise. Most of the participants exercise alone (42.7%), the number of sports club members are low (24.6%). Level of exercise (Figure 4) shows that most participants (82%) do sports as a hobby. 13% of participants were classified as never competed or never want to compete, which is also considered as hobby level exercise. We used these categories to analyse sport motivation. In Figure 5 we can see that participants preferred individual activities, particularly swimming, conditioning, cycling, gymnastics, running, aerobics and walking. Figure 6 illustrates social influences on sport. We can see that in the environment of participants friends (43.5%) and colleagues (34.9%) also do regular exercise. Current and previous physical activity of parents is quite low (3.8% and 14.5%). We wanted to identify motivational factors influencing exercise habits of voluntary participants. The questionnaire, which included 51 items, was evaluated using factor analysis. We identified four factors, namely: pleasure of competing, competition, aesthetic appearance, avoiding diseases. Factors are interpreted as follows: the first factor reflects exercise as a source of pleasure. The pleasure associated with exercising results in the feeling of fitness and health, and decreased levels of stress. The second factor shows the enjoyment of competition, the wish to win, comparing skills, and the desire to achieve something other people are not able to. The third factor focuses on aesthetic appearance and beauty. Motivational factors included the wish to become attractive, to acquire a nice body, to stay slim, and to induce weightloss. The fourth factor is concerned with health, particularly recovery from illness, and medical advice. ( Figure 7) 524

69 35% 30% 28% 30,10% 25% 22% 20% 15% 11,80% 10% 8,10% 5% 0% never sometimes 2-3 times a month 1-2 times a week 3 or more times a week Figure 1. Frequency of exercise 40% 35% 34,20% 30% 26,20% 25% 20% 17,60% 15% 10% 9,10% 9,10% 5% 3,70% 0% nothing 1/2 hour 1 hour 2-3 hours 4-5 hours 7 or more hours Figure 2. Time spent on sport 525

70 45% 42,70% 40% 35% 30% 28,70% 25% 24,60% 20% 15% 10% 5% 4,10% 0% in school in an organised club with friends alone Figure 3. Organization of sports 90% 82% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 13% 10% 0% 1% 1% 2% 1% international national local never but planning never and not planning hobby level Figure 4. Level of exercise 526

71 16% 14% 13,80% 12% 11,80% 12,30% 10% 9,60% 8% 8,60% 8% 6% 5,20% 4% 2% 0% conditioning cycling gymnastics running aerobics swimming walking Figure 5. Most frequent sports 50% 45% 43,50% 40% 35% 34,90% 30% 25% 24,20% 22% 24,20% 20% 15% 14,50% 16,10% 10% 5% 3,80% 0% parents do sport parents did sport brother/sister do sports other family do sports friend do sports colleague do sports scchoolmate do sports other Figure 6. Social influences of sport 527

72 Factor I enjoy the pleasure of exercising,886,189,067 -,068 It s an enjoyable activity,876,206,100 -,065 It s recreational,829,134,143,100 I feel the fittest,814,204,158,096 I feel healthier,801,054,086,195 It s a good feeling,756,082,133 -,107 To relieve stress,709,152,254,141 Competition,143,964 -,064 -,015 I like competing,182,935 -,056 -,007 I enjoy physical activity and competition,204,881 -,107,021 I wish to win,128,854,016 -,021 Compare skills,134,812,042 -,084 Something others are not capable of,106,718,181,177 To become attractive,191,013,922,040 To aqcuire a nice body,286,110,791 -,021 To stay slim,137 -,009,765,020 To induce weightloss,050 -,088,677,149 To recover from illness,185,107,121,865 Medical advice -,024 -,053,039,668 ExtractionMethod: Maximum Likelihood. RotationMethod: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. arotationconvergedin 5 iterations. Figure 7. RotatedFactorMatrix(a) 528

73 Conclusion The aim of the present study was to identify exercise habits and motivations of participants in our recreational exercise program during a one-month period prior to entering the program. We also set out to examine the network of social effects and its influence on the frequency of exercising. Compared to previous studies of younger populations (Keresztes, 2009), we found a declining tendency, which increases the need for lifestyle programs for adult populations. Among adult populations the level of physical activity is even lower, which leads to serious public health problems. It also shows that adults do not benefit from the positive effects of exercise. (Pikó et al., 2004). Our data show the popularity of individual hobby sports, which can help devising lifestyle programs. Unlike previous studies (Keresztes, 2009), we found that social effects do not have a significant influence on exercise. Therefore it can be concluded that assessing sport motivational factors and their structure among participants in the program is essential. Factor analysis revealed that the leading motivational factor among participants was the pleasure of exercising, because they feel good and less stressed when they exercise. The second factor was competition and the desire to be tested. It is important to win, to accomplish something other people may not be able to and to be acknowledged. Aesthetic appearance and recovery from illness by exercising were also important motivational factors. References 1. Chinn, J.D., White, M., Harland, J., Drinkwater, C., Raybould, S. (1999): Barriers to physical activity and socioeconomic position: implications for health promotion. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 53: Csoboth, Cs. (2001): Magatartásepidemiológia. In: Kopp, M., Buda, B. (szerk.) Magatartástudományok. Medicina, Budapest, Doll, R, Peto, R. (1980): The causes of cancer. Oxford University Press; New York, Freedman, D.S., Dietz. W.H., Srinivasan, S.R., Berenson, G.S. (1999): The relation of overweight to cardiovascular risk factors among children and adolescents: The Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics, 103: Keim, N.L., Blanton, C.A., Kretsch, M.J. (2004): America s obesity epidemic: Measuring physical activity to promote an active lifestyle. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 104: (Tari-)Keresztes N. (2009): Fiatalok szabadidıs fizikai aktivitásának magatartástudományi vizsgálata, PhD értekezés, Budapest, 7. From: 8. Kiss, É.Zs. (2003): Fizikai aktivitás Fittség Prevenció. Budapesti Népegészségügy, 3: Livingstone, M.B. (2001): Childhood obesity in Europe: a growing concern. Public Health and Nutrition, 4: Pikó, B., Pluhár, Zs., Keresztes, N. (2004): Külsı kényszer vagy belsı hajtóerı? Gyermekek és serdülık fizikai aktivitásának motivációs tényezıi. Alkalmazott Pszichológia, 3:

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75 THE ROLE OF PARENTS IN PREVENTION OF A CHILD S AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR Radovan Čokorilo Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Abstract Aggressive behavior of children and parents in the family, students and teachers at school, and all of them in the street, sports manifestations, etc. has reached a dangerous level in our country. Whether it is expressed in verbal or nonverbal form, aggression may reach such an extent that it can leave unpleasant consequences on those who are exposed to aggression and those who behave aggressively alike. Longlasting exposure to aggressive behavior leads to increased anxiety, depression, insufficient selfconfidence and self-respect, which may cause serious problems in a child s development. Children expressing aggressive behavior stagger in social adaptation due to which they are often rejected by their peers. Social communication and confrontation with parent s authority isolates a child from the others, which may lead to aggravated academic achievement, and consequently an increasing destructive behavior. In order to enable a preventive action of parents in terms of suppression of aggressive behavior within the family, it is necessary for them to understand the essence of aggression, as well as sources and causes of such behavior. It is necessary to detect psychological and social connotations of aggressive behavior as well as to understand the role of aggression in a child s growing-up and emancipation. It should be kept in mind that each form of aggression is not a priori a negative characteristic of a child. Psychologists currently deal with assertive behavior, i.e. with a positive, healthy and controlled aggression, which is dominated by confidence and investing little effort and energy to realization of important life goals. Pedagogical and psychological education of parents and their regular communication with teachers and pedagogues represent a basis for better knowledge and understanding of one s own and child s problems, which enables application of adequate methods of preventive actions in order to prevent undesirable forms of aggressive manifestations. Keywords: aggression, assertiveness, behavior, parent, child, prevention. Introduction The term aggression originally comes from the Latin word agressio (aggredi) which refers to attacking, assailing, assaulting, using force and threatening by it. It is most often defined as a form of behavior the purpose of which is to cause harm to someone. Aggression is a very complex notion which includes a lot of various criteria and meanings, so it is hard to define it precisely. This paper will not discuss human aggression which we all judge and which is expressed in wars, war destructions, aggression in sport fields, etc. Our target is to talk about aggression as a phenomenon which has different characteristics in a family as a basic unit of children s upbringing. In their papers the majority of authors describe aggressive behavior as a negative side of people s personality, their inclination and readiness to behave aggressively in relationships with other people. However, when children rebel against the authority of their parents they are aggressive, but they also show their instinctive need to be independent, so necessary and precious in the process of growing up (Storr, 2007: 15). Parents should learn to differentiate between assertive and aggressive behavior of their child. Assertive behavior is a positive, healthy and controlled aggression which is dominated by confidence and the investment of effort and energy in meeting the target. In order to be able to differentiate between assertive (desirable) and aggressive (non-desirable) behavior of a child, the experience of our grandmothers and grandfathers is not enough. It is necessary also to have rich pedagogical and psychological knowledge connected with the experience. 531

76 Method Descriptive (analytic and synthetic) method, which we used for the critical overview of the theoretical and empirical research in the field of family relationships and children s aggressive behavior, is exactly what was primarily used in this paper. We also relied on our own experience and clinical observations of family upbringing. Sources of children s aggressive behaviour Neural and chemical sources are identified as the most common sources of children s aggressive behavior. Neural and chemical sources. Aggressive behavior of a child, similar to the behavior of animals, is connected to the area in the middle part of the brain called amygdale. When amygdale nuclei are stimulated submissive organisms become violent and when neural activity in this area is prevented aggressive organisms become submissive. However, a monkey whose amygdale nucleus is stimulated will attack a less dominant monkey, but when it is in the company of a dominant monkey it will not attack but run away. Aggressive behavior is also influenced by certain chemical substances. Serotonin, naturally excreted in the middle brain, has an inhibiting influence on the impulsive aggression. When the flow of serotonin is interrupted, animals often become increasingly aggressive. The research has proved that violent criminals have a very low level of naturally produced serotonin. The surplus of male sex hormone- testosterone opens a possibility of increased aggressive behavior in the case of both men and animals. A lot of research among criminals, violent people, offenders and rebels has showed the same. Naturally, men are more aggressive than women owing to the presence of this hormone in their organism. The number of teachers and students who take narcotics is different from culture to culture, from school to school, from student to student. The most frequently used narcotic is alcohol, which doubtlessly causes violent behavior. Everyday experience proves that the more people drink, the more violent and impolite they are. These facts, based on experience, were also proved by earlier research (Bušman and Kuper, 1990). The results obtained in the field of criminology show that over 50% of murderers consumed alcohol before the attack and the situation is similar in the case of raping. Alcohol and other narcotics can also be responsible for children s inadequate behavior. Cultural heritage. It is familiar that the human cultures are largely different according to the level of aggression. Cultural heritage from our past has several typical factors that are responsible for the differences between our children and the children from other cultures in the way they express their aggression. Violence, as a recurrence of the Dinaric type of man with its familiar attributes (forceful, violent, fierce, boisterous, irascible, raging, pushy, intense and impulsive), is still a potentially strong factor for the occurrence and expression of violence. Violent Dinaric men have expressed hubris (selfpride, exaggeration, strength abuse, self-confidence, self-exceeding, etc.). This attribute is often followed by uja (nervousness, distraction, rage) the essence of which is anger as the primary emotion. There are sobering moments for the occurrence and punishment of hubris and uja (Achilles rage, Maksim Crnojević, Vukadin). Wars which were led in this area, as well as a very strict military and police hierarchy of organization and leadership, are also a significant cultural factor of the source of aggression. Family, especially the recurrence of a patriarchal family- a community with strict hierarchical structure led by the most prominent member as the pater familias usually functions with affective (aggressive) behavior which is easily passed on from generation to generation through the family upbringing. Anger which is transmitted from parents to children (inherited aggression) outgrows personal experience and affects evolutionary experience programmed in human genes (up. Čokorilo, 2010: ). 532

77 Family as a source of children s aggressive behavior There is no doubt that a family plays the most important part in the acquisition of social norms and attitudes, as well as the development of moral and will characteristics. It is the place where different forms of behavior are taught. Therefore, a family has the vital role in the acquisition or inhibition of aggressive behavior. Empirical research has showed that there is a significant correlation between children s aggression and the aggression of their parents. Bandura s analysis of social learning deals with the influence of parents on the development of children s aggressive behavior. Parents are role-models according to which children acquire forms of social behavior. In other words, if parents express aggressive behavior they can expect their children to do the same. Being their children s role-models, parents affect the development of aggressive behavior indirectly. There are several most frequent characteristics of parents whose behave aggressively. Teenage mothers- children whose mothers are single teenagers express antisocial and aggressive behavior more often. The majority of risk factors refer to mother s characteristics (such as dropping out of school early or behaving violently), rather than mother s age. Those mothers are often single parents and belong to a lower social and economic status, which opens new possibilities for children s aggressive behavior. Parents psychological disturbances- Parents whose children have some forms of behavioral issues often suffer from psychological disturbances, such as antisocial behavior- crime-related behavior, alcoholism and depression. Parent-child interaction research has showed that there is the lack of emotional attachment in the families of the children with behavioral issues rather than in the ones where children have no such issues. There is a positive correlation between an unfriendly parent-child relationship and aggressive behavior. We shall mention some of the characteristics of the parent-child relationship that can lead to aggressive behavior: Emotional parent-child relationship is especially important at the earliest age, since the lack of warmth and attention can cause the child s aggressive behavior towards others. Parents attitude towards child s aggressive behavior is very important, which means that aggressive behavior will develop to a higher extent if parents allow it, or even encourage it: good behavior should always be approved of and awarded. Pedagogical restrictions that parents use, or the use of physical punishments, increase the probability of aggressive behavior; parents should show empathy and interest and use their own example to teach their children tolerance, patience and emotional control. Bad relationships between parents (quarrels, arguments, fights in front of children) encourage the occurrence of children s aggressive behavior. If there are no clear criteria used to separate what a child can or cannot do (consistency is important since children always know what their parents reaction will be) it is important to set clear boundaries in children s behavior, but also leave them enough space to make their own decisions. What parents should do for their children is encourage them to express their feelings and frustrations verbally and offer them alternatives for their behavior. It is necessary to build a relationship on mutual trust and make a sort of cooperation which helps children to see their parents as friends who love them. In the case of aggressive children it is necessary to encourage pro-social behavior and develop social skills necessary for building and reflection of positive social relationships, in order to help them in social adjustment. 533

78 Society as a source of children s aggressive behavior Taking into account that family is a part of social community, there is no doubt that it takes over some models of aggressive behavior which are typical in that community. Placing family aggression in a wider context helps to understand it and see it as an element of a wider historical and social context whose influence cannot be avoided. Negative changes which happen in the political, social and educational structure of the society can have a strong influence on the occurrence and development of children s aggressive behavior. Therefore, the situation in a society and its attitude towards aggressive behavior are important factors which influence the development of children s aggressive behavior. School is an institution which society uses to bring up and educate the young and prepare them for their life ahead. Therefore, during a social crisis the responsibility of school is greater. If aggression is considered to be a legitimate means of using force and is normalized in many areas, it will not be seen as a problem in schools. What is more, it might be considered to be a useful part of children s growing up and the programs for the prevention of aggression may come across cultural barriers. School has to use its organization and act in the direction of preventing undesirable forms of behavior, influence students in a positive way and develop positive behavioral patterns. There was significantly less aggression in the schools which nurtured good relationships between adults, as well as between adults and children, and where cooperation and attachment to school were encouraged (Gašić-Pavišić, 2003). Social (peer) group can also be a source of aggressive behavior. The influence of peer groups on individuals is very significant at, more or less, all ages. A group is formed as a community which has its own identity, leader and a network of social relationships. Standards and demands of a group which include behavior can have a strong influence which changes the behavior of an individual, since accepting the norms of a group is a precondition for belonging to that group. A peer group influences the formation of mutual attitudes and social judgments. Children who are leaders (there can be more than one) are very important for a strong peer group. That is the reason why parents should work with teachers and a pedagogue to determine the source of a group influence, to identify leaders and stars of a class (the most popular children) and make sure that their influence is neutralized and undesirable forms and values redirected. Mass media are attributed a significant influence on aggression. It should be taken into account that these means are a powerful factor of education which affects consciousness, attitudes, beliefs, feelings and general behavior of adults and children. Every mass medium can have positive pedagogical effects, but it can also have a negative influence if it broadcasts the information which is opposite the widespread, human, social, ethical and other values, especially if they are opposite the family and school values. Social isolation as a source and consequence of children s aggressive behavior Children who behave aggressively do not have a desirable social adaptation and they are usually not accepted by their peers, who reject and avoid them, or treat them violently. Since they are rejected by their peers they have no opportunity, like accepted children do, to become members of peer groups and learn and practice the type of behavior which prevents aggression and improves their status in a group (cooperation, empathy, taking over other people s attitude, etc.). The lack of social communication distances them even further from others and decreases their status in a group, which affects their success at school. Those children often find a solution by making a union with the ones similar to them and inside those groups aggressive behavior is nothing but encouraged. Since they have no social skills, their behavior causes counter aggression by their peers. According to the theory of social learning (learning by a model), children learn about the social world and types of behavior by the direct influence of their peers and indirectly by observing their behavior. Peers are considered to be an important factor which controls and changes aggressive behavior, by ignoring and disapproving of socially unacceptable behavior and awarding the type of behavior which 534

79 is socially acceptable. Therefore, we can conclude that pro-social behavior is closely connected with peer rejection. ( One of important tasks that parents have is to find the most efficient educational procedures which children use to overcome the social rejection. The most acceptable way of making and maintaining desirable social relationships is certainly the ability to make social communication. Conclusion The previous analysis has showed that aggression in a family is a very present and complex problem which is not dealt with carefully enough. Aggression is undoubtedly followed by a risk of making conflicts, discouraging a child, neglecting the primary tasks, etc. therefore, it is important to differentiate and model between assertive (reliable) and aggressive behavior. According to recent analyses of aggression it is possible to make a sketch of strategies for the control and regulation of this undesirable type of behavior in a family. As we already know, there is a large number of sources of aggression in a family which are not directly connected to the family life, but they come from a wider social community, school, mass media, etc. Discovering and controlling frustrating situations which children may end up in should be a constant concern of their parents. These situations are not easy to control if parents do not take care about the children and do not tell them off after the first signs of aggression. The more efficient way is to act preventively, or to try to teach their children the skills necessary for emotional control and reactions to frustrations. Therefore, it is possible to use the strategy of social learning (modeling and encouraging) for enabling children to use non-violent techniques for solving the problems related to the family and social life. In the end: we have systemized several postulates which can be very helpful to parents if they want to understand the essence of family aggression and act preventively and keep it under control: 1) Work on your pedagogical and psychological education permanently, 2) Recognize the first symptoms of aggression in your child, 3) Learn to differentiate between assertive and aggressive behavior, 4) Keep aggression under control by using educational means 5) Discover and regulate children s frustrating situations, 6) Model nonaggressive behavior, 7) Punish, but not violently and do it in a timely manner, 8) Learn to manage your own and your child s emotions, 9) Help your children to express their anger and form the attitude towards it, 10) Cause and teach empathy, 11) Use pedagogical tactics in the sublimation of aggression (up.čokorilo, 2010:180). References 1. Aronson, E., Wilson, T.D., Akert, R.M. (2005). Socijalna psihologija. Zagreb: Mate. 2. Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pretintice Hall. 3. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and actions: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pretintice Hall. 4. Baron, R.A. (1976). The reduction of human aggression: A field study on the influence of incompatible responses. Journal of Applied Social Psychology (6) Baron, R.A., & Richardson, D.R. (1994). Human aggression. New York: Plenum. 6. Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences and control. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 535

80 7. Bushman, B.J., & Cooper, H.M. (1990). Alcohol and human aggression.: An integrative research review. Psychological Bulletin, Čokorilo, R. (2007). Prepoznavanje i obuzdavanje agresivnosti u sportu. U Zborniku radova Ekologija, sport, fizička aktivnost i zdravlje mladih, (50-57). Novi Sad: Novosadski maraton. 9. Čokorilo, R. (2009). Psihologija sporta. Novi Sad: Akademska knjiga. 10. Čokorilo, R. (2010). Mogućnosti sublimacije agresivnog u asertivno ponašanje mladih sportista. U Zborniku rezimea Ekologija, sport, fizička aktivnost i zdravlje mladih (42-43). Novi Sad: Novosadski maraton. 11. Čokorilo, R. (2012). Pedagogijai pedagogija sporta. Novi Sad: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 12. Dollard, J., Doob, J., Miller, N., Mowrer, O., & Sears, R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 13. Gašić-Pavišić, S. Ž. (2003). Ponašanje učenika na času koje učiteljima pričinjava teškoće. Nastava i vaspitanje, 52(4), Geen, R.G. (1988). Aggression and antisocial behavior. In D.T. Gilbert, S.T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psyhology ( ). New York: McGraw-Hill. 15. Goldner-Vukov, M. (1988). Porodica u krizi. Beograd-Zagreb: Medicinska knjiga. 16. Klajn, M. (2007). Uspešan roditelj. Beograd: ROD. 17. Kapor-Stanulović, N. (1985). Psihologija roditeljstva. Beograd: Nolit. 18. Knežević-Florić, O. (2007). Osnove socijalne pedagogije. Novi Sad: SPD Vojvodine. 19. Krnajić, S. (2002). Socijalni odnosi i obrazovanje. Beograd: IPI. 20. Savović, B. (2003). Agresivnost učenika u školi. Filozofski fakultet. 21. Storr, A. (2007). Ljudska agresivnost. Beograd: PREDRAG@NENAD. 22. Uzelac, S. (1995). Socijalna edukologija. Zagreb: Sagena. 23. Vilotijević, N. (2002). Porodična pedagogija. Beograd: Učiteljski fakultet. 24. Žužul, M. (1989). Agresivno ponašanje (Psihologijska analiza). Zagreb: RZ RKSSOH

81 THE RELATION OF LEARNING AND INTELLIGENCE TO THE CREATIVE THINKING OF THE CHILDREN Hussein Sadi Ibrahim College of Physical Education, University of Salahaddin. Erbil, Iraq Abstract The research aims is to Showing the relation between the learning properties and the creative thinking of the 4-5 years old children. The researcher used the descriptive curriculum (the connective relations method). The sample of the study included 60 children (30 males and 30 females) from Bala Private kindergarten in Erbil, Iraq. Rinzolli standard was used to evaluate the properties of the leaner. This standard includes a number of parts that represent the behavioral properties of the excellent children. Also, Squin test was used to measure the intelligence of the children. Torrance standard of the creative thinking was also used through using the movements and acts as research tools. Suitable statistical treatments were used through the statistical case (SPSS-version 12). Keywords: intelligence. creative thinking, children Introduction The creative children are different than others because they have positive thinking and they trust their abilities. They are patient while they think of every new thing. In addition to that, the positive directions motivate the response for learning. The mental side of the child refers to the extent of his/her acceptance of a new idea. This side reflects the child behavior of what he/she is thinking about and new things that have never been before come out. The adult creative person is the outcome of a child that was raised in a special way during his/her childhood. As we know, the early years of the child life can motivate the factors of success or failure in the future of the child. Also, the style of raising up the children and the level of the parents education can motivate and activate the creative power of the child. The children's fear of expressing their thoughts is a result of the extreme discipline that parents followed in the house. This made the children not confident of what they say or act (Abd Al-Majeed, 2008, 225). Studies varied in identifying the relation between intelligence and the creative thinking. Some studies show that there is a positive relation but other say there is no relation between them. The aims of the research: 1. Showing the relation between the learning properties and the creative thinking of the 4-5 years old children. 2. Showing the relation between intelligence and the creative thinking of the 4-5 years old children. Method The researcher used the intentional method in selecting the samples. The research sample included (60) children, (30) males and (30) females from Bala private kindergarten in Erbil, Iraq. The researcher used Rinzolli standard to evaluate the learning properties of the children (Hussein, 2005, 337). This standard includes a number of parts that represent the behavioral properties of the excellent children. After examining all the scientific references of measuring the children intelligence, the Squin test was selected because it is considered an appropriate one to measure the requested target (Al-Dabbagh, 1980, 203). This test is also free of the technical complexities and those who deal with children can utilize it. The test was presented to a group of experts and specialists in the field of teaching methods and the 537

82 kinetic learning, tests and measurements (1). They acknowledged the validity of the test to be used with children at this age and it is codified to the Iraqi environment in Erbil province exclusively. The stability factor of the test is The test instructions: This test is used for the ages 3-15 years. The target of the test to measure the intelligence of the children, their physical ability, their speed of concentration and making decisions. The test does not depend the oral standards, therefore; it is considered the easiest methods to measure the intelligence of the dumb, deaf and illiterate people. Correcting the Test The test includes ten geometrical shapes (circle, square, rectangle. Etc). The children are requested to reorganize these shapes quickly in three attempts. They are given one trial before starting the test. The shortest attempts in time are used with their scores to get the mental age through using special tables. After that the following equation is used to find the intelligence rate: The rate of intelligence = The mental age The time age X 100 Testing the creative thinking (Torance, 1977) (Torance, 1977) prepared a test of the creative thinking through using movements and acts that suit 3-7 years old children. The activities of this test were prepared to find out some types of the creative abilities of high importance in a short time. He used a tool that is available in most schools, child care centers, nurseries and kindergartens. Among the characteristics of this test is that it does not require the child to respond verbally because the 3-7 years old children have limited language skills. In spite of that, the verbal responses of the children are accepted in this test (Ali Al-Din, 2004, The Fact-Finding experiment The fact-finding experiment was applied on a sample of (10) children from Bala private kindergarten in Erbil. The goals of the experiment are: 1. Identifying whether the parts of the experiment are appropriate for this purpose. 2. To see how obvious these parts are for the samples. 3. Identifying the time needed for the answers and to make sure that the test instructions are clear. The Application of the Final Experiment of the Three Standards: The researcher applied the three standards according the following time table: The Application of Learning Properties Standard. It was applied for two days and as follows: The first day is 9th of July 2011 on male children. The second day is 10th of July 2011 on female children The Application of (Squin) standard of Intelligence. It was applied for two days and as follows: The first day is 11th of July 2011 on male children. The second day is 12 th of July 2011 on female children 1 The experts and the specialists are: Prof. Norhan Asi, Teaching Methods, College of physical education, Tikrit university. Prof. Mohammed A. Al-Khayali, The Kinetic learning, college of physical education, Mosul, Iraq Prof. Nori I. Al-Shok, measurement and test, college of physical education, university of Baghdad. Prof. Hashim A. Suleiman, Test and measurement, college of physical education, Mosul, Iraq Dr. Fida A. Salim, Teaching methods, college of physical education, Salahaddin university. Dr. Birivan Abdullah, kitetic learning, college of physical education, Salahaddin university. 538

83 The Application of (Torance) Test Through Using Movements and Acts. It was applied for two days and as follows: The first day is 13 th of July 2011 on male children. The second day is 14 th of July 2011 on female children Results The following is a review of the results of the statistical analysis through using the simple correlation coefficient (Pearson): The First Hypothesis: There is a significant correlation between the learning properties and the creative thinking of the 4-5 years old children. To verify this hypothesis, the simple correlation coefficient (Pearson) was used according to research hypothesis special for this variable and as follows: Table (1) Shows the correlation between the learning properties and the creative thinking of the 4-5 years old children R table Statistical Sex Variables R cal. value Freedom rate value indication Males Females Learning properties Creative thinking Learning properties Creative thinking Significant significant From table (1) we notice that (R) calculated value between the learning properties and the creative thinking for both males and females was 0.73 and 0.64 respectively. It is higher than the table value which is 0.51 with freedom rate of 13 and at false rate of this proves that there is a significant correlation between the learning properties and the creative thinking. Torance is one of the first of those who are interested in children creativity. He thinks that the child is born with energy and ability to be creative in a certain way. He also thinks that the way the child shake things and deal with them is just the beginning of her/his creative thinking. Children express their creativity all the time through their complete self-dependence. The thing required from people who care about children is to encourage and promote this natural and inborn creativity they find in children (Jones, 2008, 34). The childhood stage makes it easier for the pupils to save information, expertise and symbols of things to be able to utilize them in gaining future expertise, interpreting and dealing with this expertise. Therefore, this mental period must be used for the benefit of the child. Children at this age should be encouraged to memorize and repeat information. They should also be trained on restoring and remembering information. Positive promotion methods should be used to help children achieve that (Hijazy, 2009, 170). A number of education and psychology teachers in Lasa Binsa university in Italy, consider that there is a positive relation between the children and their ability to be creative. This education is not only useful in the formation of the child personality, but also help in make the child creative. The Italian men of education recommend not to blame children for their wrong creativity, not to over watch them, spoiling them or to show direct interest in what they present or ask about. This will develop their feeling of the taste of beauty through directing their attention towards every tidy and organized thing in the house or the kindergarten (Jeffrey, 2009, p 148). (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996) refers to the importance of encouraging and promoting creativity of the teachers through increasing their awareness of the nature of creativity and the behavior types that the teacher should practice in order he/she can avoid these behaviors in the classrooms. In addition to that, increasing the awareness of the environment of the school semester that promotes the creativity process. 539

84 There also should be awareness of the strategies and the required activities to promote creativity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, 22). (Jameel, 2008) sees that in order to make school children creative, then it is important to make efforts, spend time and be persistent. Many of the prevailed traditions in our society must be changed. These traditions do not coincide with the changes of the time we live in. The old teaching methods should also be changed. The concepts, the directions and the values of most of the teachers, headmasters, parents and pupils need to be renewed (Jameel, 2008, 84). Also "the child who achieve any type of work with high efficiency and in a way better than other children of the same age, that can lead to high quality achievements and contributions in the future (internet)". Reviewing and discussing the results of the relation between intelligence and the creative thinking of the 4-5 years old children: The following are the results obtained by the statistical analysis using the simple correlation coefficient (Pearson): To verify this hypothesis, the simple correlation coefficient (Pearson) was used according to research hypothesis special for this variable and as follows: Table (2) Shows the correlation between intelligence and the creative thinking of the 4-5 years old children R table Statistical Sex Variables R cal. value Freedom rate value indication Males Females Intelligence (Squin) test Creative thinking (Torance) Intelligence (Squin) test Creative thinking (Torance) * significant on fault rate of (0.05) Significant* Significant* Through table (2), we can notice that (R) calculated values, between intelligence and the creative thinking for both males and females, are 0.63 and 0.57 respectively. They are bigger than the table value which is 0.51 with freedom rate of 13 degree but at a fault rate of That shows that there is a significant correlation between intelligence and creative thinking. In table (2) we notice that there is a significant relation between intelligence and creative thinking for both males and females. The studies proved that the intelligent children have increase in their neurotic fibers in their brain cells. The psychologists divided humans into categories according to their thinking type. The studies carried out in the 1950s assured that the right half of the brain is different in its physical properties than the left one. Those who are controlled by the thinking of the right half tend to general things, they are more interested in shapes and sizes. They are imaginative and creative. They love to move and do not sit quiet. They love the group work and the open-ended questions. Those who are controlled by the thinking of the left half are creative in the academic and logical works. Spearman considers that creativity is but a form of the general individual intelligence (Hijazy, 2009, 38). That is supported by a study of four groups of pupils (high intelligence and creativity, high intelligence and low creativity, low intelligence and high creativity, low intelligence and creativity). The results of this study showed that the group of the high intelligence and high creativity have more control and freedom and they have the courage to behave like those who are older than them. Therefore, we consider that intelligence and creativity are correlated. Creativity does not spring from a stupid or someone who is not intelligent. Discovering something and searching for it is a type of intelligence. Therefore, intelligence is one of the most important characteristics of the creative person. 540

85 Conclusions In the light of the results, the researcher made the following conclusions: 1. There is a significant correlation between learning properties and the creative thinking of the 4-5 years old children (males and females). 2. There is a significant correlation between intelligence and creative thinking of the 4-5 years old children (males and females). References 1. Abo jado, Salih M. Ali (2000), The Education Psychology, 2 nd edition. Amman, Jordan: Al-Maseera house for publishing, 2. Al-Jacob, M., &Al-Rahman, A. (2002). The Correct curriculum of teaching. - 1 st ed. Amman, Jordan: Wael for publishing. 3. Bloom, Binyamen et al. (1983). Evaluation of student's formative and collective learning. Egypt, Cairo: McDohill for publishing. 4. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity. New York: Harper Collins. 5. Dafidov, L. (1988). Entrance to Psychology. 3 rd ed. Cairo, Egypt: McDogill for publishing. 6. Hijazy, S. N. (2006). Creativity psychology, definition, promotion and measurement in children. Cairo: Al-Fikr Al-Araby house. 7. Hijazy, S.N. (2009). Promoting creativity and patronage of talented children. 1 st ed. Amman, Jordan: Al-Maseera house for publishing, 8. Hussein, M., & Abd Al-Hadi (2005). The early discovery of the multiple intelligence abilities in early childhood. 1 st ed. Amman, Jordan: Dar Al-Fikr. 541

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87 INTELLECTUAL MATURITY RELATIONSHIP TO AGE AND ACCADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN STUDENTS OF SPECIAL SCHOOL FOR ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION IN NIŠ Miloš Popović 1, 2, Hana Valkova 1, Ružena Popović 3 and Milan Dolga 4 1 Faculty of Physical Culture, Department of APA (master study), Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic 2 Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Priština (Kosovska Mitrovica), Leposavić, Kosovo, Serbia 3 Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš, Serbia 4 Agency for Multivariate Data Analysis Smart-Line, Novi Sad, Serbia Abstract The basic purpose of this study was to determine the significance of gender, and grade-level differences in motor development, related to the different IQ-Intellectual maturity sub-categories. Additionally, of special interest in this study was to establish the correlations among variables for the estimation of chronological age, academic achievement, and intellectual maturity (IQ) of the participants. The total sample of 282 subjects of both genders (176 male and 96 female) was included in the study. Physical Fitness Tests (PFT) for the evaluation of motor development was applied (Fjørtoft et al. 2003), comprising nine different tasks, for the estimation of explosive strength, running speed, agility and endurance of participants. Study Results were processed with descriptive statistics, ANOVA, MANOVA, and DISCRA Methods. It was established statistically significant between gender difference (p=.001) in 7/9 components for the estimation of motor development (PFT), with discriminative coefficient (up.000 to.037) in favor male sample of participants. Significant difference was established between grade-level of Special Elementary and Secondary school participants (p =.000) and among different intellectual maturity (IQ) sub-categories (p=.000). Significant Kendall s (,416) and Spearman s (,537) Correlation coefficient was estimated between chronological age and academic achievement (at the.05 level), and between IQ and academic achievement (at the.01 level). These research results are relevant for the evaluation of the various components both sufficient physical fitness and motor competence in children with intellectual disabilities, as these factors are important contributors to their health and well-being. Keywords: Special Physical Education, Physical Fitness Test, Intellectual maturity, Age and Gender differencess, Educational success, Relationship Introduction The concept of the integrated development or the interrelationship between motor and intellectual abilities has served as the foundation of a number of theories of child development and of learning. The learning of motor skills requires total physical and intellectual involvement for greatest efficiency. It has been assumed by many that the learning and the performance of motor skills are closely related to intelligence. In an investigation of the relationships between selected fitness items and academic achievement, Arnett found significant differences among college women. Those who achieved the higher grade point averages were also high on the fitness scores. The basic purpose of this study was to determine the significance of the gender (male/female) difference, grade-level differences in the basic motor development, related to the different IQ-maturity subcategories. 543

88 Method The total sample of 176 subjects of both genders (118 male and 58 female) was included in the study. Instruments: A battery of Physical Fitness Tests (PFT) for the evaluation of motor development was applied (Fjørtoft et al. 2003), comprising nine different tasks (including running, jumping, throwing and climbing) for the estimation of explosive strength, running speed, agility and endurance of participants. Study Results were processed with descriptive statistics, ANOVA, MANOVA, and DISCRA Methods. Additionally, of special interest in this study was to establish the correlations among variables for the estimation of chronological age (Age/M), academic achievement (ScSs), intellectual maturity (IQ) and motor development (PFT) of Special Secondary School Students, using Pearson s, Kendall s, and Spearman s Correlations Coefficient (r). Results Analysis of chronological age and academic achievement of the elementary and secondary school participants, relative to the IQ-intellectual maturity In accordance with previous established research project and study design the thematic segments (chronological age) and (academic achievement/school success) of the elementary and secondary school are analyzed, relative to the intellectual maturity. In the first part are presented central dispersive and variation parameters, of skewness and Kurtosis respective to the observed parameters. In the second part are analyzed differences within intellectual sub-categories, respectively are proved or rejected hypothesis, concerned to the evaluation of the estimated results and applicability of the further consideration, as well as for the statement of directions and methodological priorities of data procession. Than, if acceptable, under certain conditions have to be defined characteristics and homogeneity of every intellectual maturity, sub-category, and estimated distance between them. At the end, estimated results have to be graphically presented. Analysis are performed within two variables (Age/M) age in month, and (School success) school success, on total sample of (N= 282) participants, divided in 3 sub-samples of intellectual maturity, respectively IQ (48-54) (n=117), IQ (55-70) (n=110), IQ (71-109) (n=55). Basic parameters of (chronological age) (academic achievement) in elementary and secondary school participants, relative to 3 intellectual maturity sub-categories Central and dispersive parameters, measures of asymmetry (Skewness) and Kurtosis, of observed (chronological age) and (academic achievement) variables within IQ (48-54) sub-category of intellectual maturity and directed to the possibility of application parametric procedures. Table 1a. Basic descriptive (central and dispersive) parameters and measures of asymmetry (Skw) and Kurtosis in participants of IQ (48-54) sub-category of intellectual maturity and applied variables for estimation of chronological age and academic achievement n=117 Mean SD Min Max CV % Range Skw Kur p Age/M ScSs Table 1b. Basic descriptive (central and dispersive) parameters and measures of asymmetry (Skw) and Kurtosis in participants of IQ (55-70) sub-category of intellectual maturity and applied variables for estimation of chronological age and academic achievement n=110 Mean SD Min Max CV % Range Skw Kur p age/m ScSs

89 Table 1c. Basic descriptive (central and dispersive) parameters and measures of asymmetry (Skw) and Kurtosis in participants of IQ (71-109) sub-category of intellectual maturity and applied variables for estimation of chronological age and academic achievement n=55 Mean SD Min Max CV % Range Skw Kur p age/m ScSs Note: values of asymmetry (Skewness) and Kurtosis in interval (up -.04 to.04) are not interpreted, nor discussed Legend: Mean average value; SD standard deviation; Min Minimal value; Max Maximal value; CV %-variation coefficient; Range-Confidence interval of mean; Skw skewness; Kur Kurtosis; p- probability; Age/M-chronological age in month; ScSs-academic achievement (on 5-points decimal scale, with 5 as the best) Min- and Maximal values of Age/M (chronological age) and ScSs (academic achievement) in participants of IQ (48-54) sub-category point out that the values are placed in inspected range. Higher values of CV% (Variation coefficient) point out on heterogeneous group IQ (48-54) in regard to: school success (School success) (28.13), and on homogeneity of variable chronological age in month (Age/M) (12.61). Higher values of Skewness point out that the distribution is negative asymmetrical, which means that the curve of results distribution decline to higher values, respectively have more higher values, relative to normal distribution, in regard to: school success (School success) (.38). Smaller values of Skewness (Skw) point out that results distribution is positive asymmetrical, which means that the curve of the results distribution decline to smaller values, respectively that have more smaller values, relative to normal distribution, at: age in month (Age/M) (-.16). Negative values of Kurtosis (Kur) point out that the curve is plato-shape, at: school success (School success) (-.75). Values distribution is mainly in range of normal distribution (p) at: chronological age in month (Age/M) (.86). Values distribution decline up normal distribution (p) at: academic achievement (ScSs) (.06). Min- and Maximal values of Age/M (chronological age), and ScSs (academic achievement) of participants IQ (48-54) sub-category point out that the values are placed in inspected range. Higher values of Variation coefficient (CV %) point out on heterogeneous IQ (48-54) in regard to: school success (School success) (28.13). Values of Variation coefficient (CV %) point out on homogeneity of variable age in month (age/m) (12.61). Higher values of Skewness (Skw) point out that the distribution is negative asymmetrical, which means that the curve of results distribution decline to higher values, respectively have more higher values, relative to normal distribution, in regard to: school success (School success) (.38). Smaller values of Skewness (Skw) point out that results distribution is positive asymmetrical, which means that the curve of the results distribution decline to smaller values, respectively that have more smaller values, relative to normal distribution, at: age in month (Age/M) (-.16). Negative values of Kurtosis (Kur) point out that the curve is plato-shape, at: school success (School success) (-.75). Values distribution is mainly in range of normal distribution (p) at: chronological age in month (Age/M) (.86). Values distribution decline up normal distribution (p) at: academic achievement (ScSs) (.06). Minimal (Min) and Maximal (Max) values of variables for the estimation chronological age and academic achievement within participants of IQ (55-70) sub-category of academic achievement point out that values are placed u inspected range. Higher values of variation coefficient (CV %) point out on heterogeneous IQ (55-70) at: school success (School success) (23.05). Values variation coefficient (CV %) point out on homogeneity variable chronological age (age/m) (16.09). Smaller values Skewness (Skw) point out that distribution is positive asymmetrical, which means that curve of the results distribution decline to smaller values, respectively has more smaller values, relative to normal distribution, at: school success (School success) (-.39). Value of Skewness (Skw) point out that distribution is not asymmetrical at: chronological age (age/m) (-.01). Negative values of Kurtosis (Kur) point out that curve has plato-shape, at: chronological age (age/m) (-.62), academic achievement (ScSs) (-.63). Values distribution, mainly are placed in range of normal distribution (p) at: chronological age (age/m) (.68), academic achievement (ScSs) (.40). Minimal (Min) and Maximal (Max ) values of chronological age and academic achievement within participants of IQ (71-109) point out that values are placed u inspected range. Values of coefficient 545

90 variation (CV %) point out on homogeneity of variable chronological age (age/m) (12.97), and academic achievement (ScSs) (19.88). Smaller values of Skewness (Skw) point out that distribution is positive asymmetrical, which means that curve of results distribution decline to smaller values, respectively have more smaller values relative to normal distribution, at: chronological age (age/m) (-.45), academic achievement (ScSs) (-.81). Higher value of Kurtosis (Kur) point out that curve is leptosome at: chronological age (age/m) (.22). Negative value of Kurtosis (Kur) point out that curve has plato-shape, at: academic achievement (ScSs) (-.04). Values distribution is mainly placed in range of normal distribution (p) at: chronological age (age/m) (.99), and academic achievement (ScSs) (.17). Analysis of differences among IQ sub-categories of intellectual maturity within elementary and secondary school participants, relative to chronological age and academic achievement In this part has to be accepted or rejected or rejected statement that exits significant difference among IQ intellectual maturity sub-categories of participants, relative to chronological age and academic achievement Table 2. Significance of difference among intellectual maturity of participants relative to chronological age and academic achievement Analysis n F p MANOVA DISCRA Abbreviations: MANOVA Multivariate Analysis of Variance; DISCRA Discriminative Analysis; F variables ratio; p probability On the base of values p =.000 of (MANOVA) and p =.000 of (DISCRA), it has to be rejected hypothesis H 1 and hypothesis H 2 and has to be accepted alternative hypothesis A 1 as well as alternative hypothesis A 2, which means that exists difference and clearly defined range between intellectual maturity of participants. Table 3. Significance of difference among intellectual maturity of participants, relative to chronological age and academic achievement F p c.disc age/m ScSs Abbreviations: F variables ratio; p probability; c.disc discriminative coefficient; Age/Mchronological age in month; ScSs-academic achievement (on 5-points decimal scale, with 5 as the best) As is (p<.1) it has to accept an alternative hypothesis A 3, which means that exists significant difference among some IQ intellectual maturity sub-categories relative to: school success (.000). As is (p >.1) there is no reason to not accept of hypothesis H 3, which means that is not estimated significant difference among IQ intellectual maturity sub-categories, relative to: chronological age of participants (.323). Coefficient of discrimination (c.disc) direct that the highest contribution to discrimination among IQ sub-categories of intellectual maturity within participants, relative to chronological age and academic achievement, respectively point out that difference is higher at: academic achievement (.257), then in chronological age of participants (.049). It has to be noted that is evident latent variable, where is not estimated difference among intellectual maturity, while discriminative analysis has include them to the structure according those exists significant difference within intellectual maturity. Latent variable is: chronological age of participants (.323). Table 4. Significance of difference between IQ intellectual maturity sub-categories, relative to chronological age and academic achievement of participants sub-category Mean t p age/m IQ (48-54) IQ (71-109) ScSs IQ (48-54) IQ (55-70) ScSs IQ (48-54) IQ (71-109) ScSs IQ (55-70) IQ (71-109) Age/M-chronological age in month; ScSs-academic achievement (on 5-points decimal scale, with 5 as the best) 546

91 Legend: Mean average value; T t-test; p-probability; Age/M-chronological age in month; ScSsacademic achievement (on 5-points decimal scale, with 5 as the best) On the base of presented results (Table 4) it is evident that has to accept the alternative hypothesis A4, while is (p<.1) for all presented results, which means that exists significant difference between intellectual maturity. Concerning chronological age (AgeM) it is evident that IQ (48-54) and IQ (71-109) sub-categories differ, while is (p =.096) and the mean of IQ (48-54) sub-category is smaller then mean of IQ (71-09) sub-category. The same is concerning academic achievement (ScSc) were evident difference between IQ (48-54) and IQ (55-70) sub-categories (.000), while mean of IQ (48-54) is smaller then mean of IQ (55-70). The same is concerning academic achievement (ScSc) were are evident difference between IQ (48-54) and IQ (71-109) (.000) while mean is smaller then mean 4.145), as well as concerning academic achievement (ScSc) between IQ (55-70) and IQ (71-109) while is p (.016) and mean is smaller then mean Characteristics and homogeneity of IQ- intellectual maturity of participants, relative to chronological age and academic achievement On the base of presented considerations and analysis total sample of 282 participants, in accordance with applied methodology, logical follow-up of research is determination of the characteristics and homogeneity of every IQ-intellectual maturity sub-category of the participants and distance among them. The fact that is (p=.000) of discriminative analysis, means that exists clearly defined range among IQ-intellectual maturity sub-categories of participants, respectively is possible to determine characteristics of every IQ-intellectual maturity sub-category, relative to chronological age and academic achievement of participants. Table 5. Characteristics and homogeneity of IQ-intellectual maturity sub-categories of participants, relative to chronological age and academic achievement IQ (48-54) IQ (55-70) IQ (71-109) ctrb % ScSs smaller moderate* 1 Higher* Age/M smaller moderate Higher* n/m 79/117 67/110 38/55 hmg % Legend: hmg %-homogeneity; ctrb %-contribution of variable to group characteristics; Age/Mchronological age; ScSs-academic achievement on 5-points decimal scale, with 5 as the best; IQintellectual maturity coefficient Eigenvalue of every sub-category of IQ-intellectual maturity is the most defined with academic achievement, while the contribution of variable (ScSs) to group characteristics is (83.99 %), next is chronological age (16.01%). Homogeneity of IQ (48-54) sub-category is (67.52 %), of IQ (55-70) is (60.91 %) and of IQ (71-109) is (69.09 %). On the basis of presented it is possible to say that characteristics of IQ (48-54) sub-category have 79/117 participants, homogeneity is 67.5 % (higher), which means that 38 participants have other characteristics, and not those of own group, and characteristics of IQ (55-70) have 67/110 participants, homogeneity is 60.9 % (higher) while 43 participants have others characteristics, as well as characteristics of IQ (71-109) have 38/55 participants, homogeneity is 69.1 % (higher) while 17 participants have other characteristics. Which means that participants, whose characteristics are similar to characteristics of IQ (48-54) sub-category, and have anonymous orientation to intellectual maturity, it is possible to inspect, with confidence of 67.5 % that belongs exactly to IQ (48-54) intellectual maturity sub-category, respectively it is possible to provide prognosis, with some confidence. On the basis of chronological age of participants and academic achievement consideration it is possible to say: - IQ (48-54) sub-category has these eigenvalues: for school success is smaller, for chronological age is smaller. - IQ (55-70) sub-category has these eigenvalues: for school success is moderate* 1, for chronological age is moderate. 547

92 - IQ (71-109) sub-category has these eigenvalues: for school success is Higher* 2, for chronological age are Higher* 1. Table 6. Mahalanobis distance between IQ-intellectual maturity of participants, relative to chronological age and academic achievement IQ (48-54) IQ (55-70) IQ (71-109) IQ (48-54) IQ (55-70) IQ (71-109) Calculating Mahalanobis distances between IQ-intellectual maturities of participants provide another one indicator of similarity or difference. Distance of different segments may be to compare. Distance in table (30) point out that the smallest distance is between IQ-intellectual maturity subcategories: IQ (71-109) and IQ (55-70) (.49) (moderate) and the most distant are IQ-intellectual maturity sub-categories of participants: IQ (71-109) and IQ (48-54) (1.32) (higher). Table 7. Grouping of the IQ-intellectual maturity sub-categories of participants, relative to chronological age and academic achievement level distance/closeness IQ (55-70), IQ (71-109).49 IQ (48-54), IQ (55-70) 1.16 On the base of presented dendrogram it is evident that the closes are IQ (55-70) and IQ (71-109) with distance (.49), and the higher distance is between IQ (48-54) and IQ (55-70) sub-categories of the participants (1.16) Legend: IQ (48-54) (1) IQ (55-70) (2) IQ (71-109) (3) Graphical presentation of the difference between intellectual maturity, relative to 2-two most discriminative of chronological age and academic achievement of participants On the base of graphical presentation of ellipses (confidence interval) it is possible to scope mutual position and characteristic of every of 3 IQ-intellectual maturity sub-category of the participants: [IQ-(48-54) (1); IQ-(55-70) (2); IQ-(71-109) (3)], relative to the two most discriminative (variable): academic achievement (ScSc), chronological age (AgeM). It is possible to scope that, relative to academic achievement, IQ-(48-54) intellectual maturity sub-category (1) has the smallest values of the chronological age and academic achievement, and the highest values have IQ-(71-109) sub-category of participants (3). Relative to chronological age IQ(48-54) sub-category of participants (1) have the smallest value of chronological age and academic achievement, and the higher value has IQ-(71-109) sub-category of participants (3). 548

93 On the Graph 1 abscise/horizontal axe is academic achievement (ScSc), and ordinate/vertical axe is chronological age (AgeM). Graph 1 Ellipses of (confidence interval), of the IQ-intellectual maturity sub-categories of participants at (ScSs) academic achievement and AgeM chronological age 220 AgeM ScSc Legend: IQ (48-54) (1); IQ (55-70) (2); IQ (71-109) (3); school success (ScSc); age in month (AgeM) Conclusion - It was established statistically significant between gender difference (p=.001) in 7/9 components for the estimation of motor development (PFT), with discriminative coefficient (up.000 to.037) in favor male sample of participants. - Significant difference was established between grade-level of Special Elementary and Secondary school participants (p=.000) and among different intellectual maturity (IQ) sub-categories (p=.000). - Significant Kendall s (,416) and Spearman s (,537) Correlation coefficient was estimated between chronological age and academic achievement (at the.05 level), and between IQ and academic achievement (.01). The significant relationship was estimated between chronological age and educational performance (0.5), and between IQ-maturity and educational performance (0.1) with Kendall s (.416) and Spearman s (.537) Correlation Coefficient. - Physical Fitness Tests (PFT) items scores were transformed into standardized z-score, and have not established significant correlation with other variables within total sample of participants. - However, when separate analysis were conducted to examine differences between boys and girls, the relationship between academic achievement and motor performance was evident in girls, but not in boys. - General conclusion, derived from results of this study, provided within Special education of Secondary school students do not support constant link between PET variables and common 549

94 indices of academic achievement, such as average of various educational subjects marks (gradepoints). - Continued research is needed to gain more causal understanding of the relationship between physical fitness and cognition in children with intellectual disabilities. - Future research should address and explain which parameters of physical fitness and activities obtain the greatest cognitive benefits, examine the effects of physical activity and fitness by cohorts, and investigate which moderators have the greatest impact on student cognition and education performance. These research results are relevant for the evaluation of the various components of both sufficient physical fitness and motor competence in children with intellectual disabilities, as these factors are important contributors to their health and well-being. References 1. Popović, M. (2011). The Evaluation of Motor Development in Elementary and Secondary School Children with Intellectual Disabilities (Unpublished master thesis). Olomouc: Faculty of Physical Culture (Chech Republic). Complete List of Refferencess is on disposal complimentarry by request to the authors. Note: This study is part of the master theses (Popovic, M., 2011) developed under umbrella of ESF project No. CZ 1.07/1.200/ Special education center of adapted physical activity 550

95 QUALITY OF LIFE IN CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES OBSERVED THROUGH PHYSICAL HEALTH DOMAIN Špela Golubović and Renata Škrbić Faculty of Medicine, Department of Special Rehabilitation and Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Abstract Different disabilities have different effects on the quality of life. The aim of this study is to investigate how children with intellectual disability and hearing impairements, as well as their parents, assess children s quality of life, particularly viewed through physical health aspect. Participans included 67 adolescents with intellectual disability, 57 adolescents with hearing impairments and the same number of their parents. Control group consisted of 122 typically developing adolescents and an equal number of their parents. In order to assess the quality of life we used The PedsQL 4.0 Generic Core Scale questionnaire, subscale Physical Health, which was completed (separately) by adolescents aged between 13 and 18 and their parents. Results reveal that children with hearing impairments are less satisfied with their quality of life than the other two groups of children (p<0,02), while children with intellectual disability rate their quality of life as high. Parents of children with disabilities report lower quality of life of their children than parents of tipically developing children (F = 12,21 p<0,00). Comprehensive evaluation of children s needs is crucial in order to provide adequate intervention plan and individual education plan. Keywords: disability, physical health-related quality of life, PedsQL Introduction Quality of life of children with disabilities has been studied frequently in the last two decades by examining different aspects of their functioning e.g. rehabilitation, health, education. It is generally viewed as a multidimensional construct that depends on our physical and social environment, as well as on our emotional and existential reactions to the environment (Cummins, 2005; Fairclough, 2010). The presence of any disability can influence children s quality of life. Previous studies on children with disabilities show that the quality of life for children with developmental disabilities is lower than the quality of life for children without developmental disabilities and those different aspects of functioning are affected (Sawyer et al., 2002; Watson, & Keith, 2002). Quality of life of children declines in proportion to the severity of impairment, as well as the presence of related disorders or other chronic diseases. Quality of life assessment in children with disabilities is very important because it can be used to identify children s needs, determine support service and intervention plans, and measure treatment outcomes.. Ensuring optimum quality of life for children with disabilities is one of the main objectives when providing services, programs, interventions and education. 551

96 Participants Method The sample was divided into three groups. The first group included 67 adolescents with mild intellectual disability, the second group included 57 adolescents with hearing impairments, each with the same number of their parents. Control group consisted of 122 typically developing adolescents and an equal number of their parents. To meet the criteria for participating in the study, children were in the year age range,,had a knowledge of Serbian language and lived with their parents or guardians. We obtained parent or guardian consent forms. Instruments To assess the quality of life we used The PedsQL 4.0 Generic Core Scale for adolescents aged 13 to 18 (Varni, Seid, & Rode, 1999). The PedsQL Measurement Model is designed as a modular approach for measuring healthrelated quality of life in both healthy children and adolescents and those with acute and chronic health conditions. It consists of parallel questionnaires for the child (self-report) and the parent (proxy-report). For the purpose of this study we used Physical functioning subscale (8 items) from The PedsQL 4.0 questionnaire. Response scale contains five levels of scoring: 0 = never a problem, 1 = almost never a problem, 2 = sometimes a problem, 3= often a problem, and 4 = almost always a problem. We used the version of the scale in Serbian language, culturally adapted, and obtained permission from Mapi Research Trust. Reliability of PedsQL 4.0 was computed on the whole sample, separately for adolescents and parents. Cronbach alpha coefficient (α) for Physical functioning subscales was 0.80 and inter item correlation was The survey was conducted at three primary, three secondary and one special (education) school. A total of 350 questionnaires were distributed, with 54% of them returned with a signed consent. Adolescents with intellectual disability, apart from completing the questionnaire in small groups and individually, were given additional help. It meant: reading the questionnaire aloud, avoiding suggestion of an answer to the child; interpretation of questions, using words that the respondent understands. Results In order to determine how adolescents with disabilities and their parents rate physical health, as a component of adolescents quality of life, we used descriptive statistics. The results showed that parents of adolescents with intellectual disability were not satisfied with their children s physical health and rated it as low. In contrast, adolescents with intellectual disability assessed their physical health as good and were satisfied with their physical health. This (discrepancy) might be explained by the fact that some children with intellectual disability self-reported the highest physical health. Another possible explanation is that they did not fully understand the meaning of the items, or desired to present themselves in the best light, thereby assessing their physical health more positively. On the other hand, adolescents with hearing impairments and their parents were less pleased, and reported lower quality of life scores than adolescents with intellectual disability. Predictably, typically developing adolescents and their parents reported the highest scores. Differences were found between adolescents' and parents' mean scores; that is, adolescents perceived their quality of life to be better than their parents (Table 1). Earlier studies indicated / revealed that presence of disabilities influences the physical health related quality of life, particularly in children with autism, multiple disabilities, cerebral palsy (Edwards, Patrick, & Topolski, 2003; Shipman, Sheldrick, & Perrin, 2011; Varni, & Burwinkle, 2006)). 552

97 Table 1. Quality of life assessment through physical health assessment Scale M Min Max SD Typically developing adolescents- parents 81,10 34,38 100,00 12,99 Typically developing- adolescents 84,17 50,00 100,00 11,74 Hearing impairments- parents 75,00 46,88 100,00 13,73 Hearing impairments- adolescents 77,58 59,38 100,00 9,78 Intellectual disability-parents 69,64 12,50 100,00 20,21 Intellectual disability - adolescents 80,60 25,00 100,00 18,52 In order to verify if there are significant differences between groups of participants we applied Analysis of Variance (Table 2). The results revealed no significant differences between two groups of adolescents with disabilities, but statistically significant differences were evidenced between parents. Parents of adolescents with disabilities reported lower physical health related quality of life of their children (p<0,000), comparable to parents of typically development adolescents. Furthermore, parents of adolescents with intellectual disability did not rate the physical health of their children as high as other parents. Similar results were reported in studies where target group included children with attention and hyperactivity problems (Limbers et.all 2009). Table 2. Differences between groups of participants SS - Effect df - Effect MS - Effect SS - Error df - Error MS - Error F p Adolescents 464,40 2,00 232, ,85 238,00 201,39 1,15 0,32 Parents 5848,70 2, , ,52 238,00 239,43 12,21 0,00 Our study found low and moderate agreement between the assessments of adolescents and their parents (Table 3). Possible reason for such a low agreement might be children s unrealistic perception of their own physical functioning and desire to appear in a better light. On the other hand, in another study of quality of life for children with developmental disabilities, the highest agreement was obtained on this very scale (Shipman, Sheldrick, & Perrin, 2011; Varni, & Burwinkle, 2006). Agreement in assessing the quality of life of children and parents of general population in most cases demonstrates moderate agreement between the answers given by the children and their parents (Eiser, & Morse, 2001). This is consistent with the findings obtained in this study. The correlation between the assessment of adolescents with intellectual disability, and hearing impairments and their parents is low. With regard to children with intellectual disability, previous studies have shown a positive mild and moderate agreement between assessments of children and their parents (Janssen, Schuengel, & Stolk, 2005; McVilly, Burton- Smith, & Davidson, 2000). Table3. Correlation between adolescents and their parents Mean Mean Correlation r Skale Adolescents Parents typically developing 84,17 81,10 0,50 hearing impairments 77,58 75,00 0,37 intellectual disability 80,60 69,64 0,31 Conclusion Our research results suggest that ongoing commitment to providing expert support, assistance, and services, particularly in the domain of psychosocial health is needed to improve the quality of life for children with disabilities. The importance of taking into account the parents' perception is reflected in the fact that it is the parent who knows the child best, and will make the final decision concerning treatment application. 553

98 References 1. Cummins, R. A. (2005). Moving from the quality of life concept to a theory. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49(10), Edwards, T. C., Patrick, D. L., & Topolski, T. D. (2003). Quality of life of adolescents with perceived disabilities. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 28(4), Eiser, C., & Morse R. (2001). Can parents rate their child s health related quality of life? Result of systematic review. Quality of Life Research, 10(4), Fairclough, D. (2010). Design and analysis of quality of life studies in clinical trials. 2th ed. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. 5. Janssen, C., Schuengel, C., & Stolk, J. (2005). Perspectives on quality of life of people with intellectual disabilities: The interpretation of discrepancies between clients and caregivers. Quality of Life Research, 14(1), Limbers, C. A., Heffer, R. W., & Varni, J. W. (2009). Health-related quality of life and cognitive functioning from the perspective of parents of school-aged children with Asperger's syndrome utilizing the Pedsql. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(11), McVilly, K., Burton- Smith, R., & Davidson, J. (2000). Concurrence between subject and proxy ratings of quality of life for people withand without intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 25(1), Sawyer, M. G., Whaites, L., Rey, J. M., Hazell, P. L., Graetz, B. W., & Baghurst, P. (2002). Healthrelated quality of life of children and adolescents with mental disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(5), Shipman, D. L., Sheldrick, R. C., & Perrin, E. C. (2011). Quality of life in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: Reliability and validity of self-reports. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 32(2), Varni, J. W., & Burwinkle, T. M. (2006). The PedsQL as a patient-reported outcome in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A population-based study. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 4(1), Varni, J., Seid, M., & Rode, C. (1999). The PedsQL : Measurement model for the pediatric quality of life inventory. Medical Care, 37(2), Watson, S. M. R., & Keith, K. D. (2002). Comparing the quality of life of school-age children with and without disabilities. Mental Retardation, 40(4),

99 MENS SANA IN CORPORE SANO FROM ITS ORIGINS UP TO NOW Željko Banićević, Aleksandra Belić and Ivana Banićević Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Abstract Considering the increasingly frequent use of the maxim Mens sana in corpore sano in the areas of sport and recreation, it is important to understand its essential meaning. The aim of this study is to explain different interpretations of this maxim from its very beginning through various historical periods until today. Also, another important idea was to find out the actual meaning of the maxim through the context of the modern world and its development trend. For this purpose 276 students of the 2 nd (n=88), 3 rd (n=102) and 4 th year (n=86) of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, were surveyed. The research showed the following results: % (n=275) heard of the above-mentioned maxim and only 0.03 % (n=1) did not; 99.97% (n=275) did not know who was the creator of the maxim and only 0.03 % (n=1) did. As for the interpretation of the maxim, opinions were divided, including 5.5 % students who represented a different opinion, which indicates that this saying is not clarified enough. Keywords: mind and body dualism, development trend, sport and recreation, health Introduction Maxim Mens sana in corpore sano is widely used in the field of sports and recreation. Every day it is used by the majority of the active population, and it is presumed that very few people know its real meaning. Not so often you can find sports scientists who use this maxim as an indirect phrase in their papers, such as for example Resnicow, K. et. al. (Resnicow, K. et. al., 2002) with the headline Healthy Body/Healthy Spirit: a church-based nutrition and physical activity intervention. This assumptions can be substantiated by the fact that in the areas of philosophy of sport this topic has not been elaborated at all, therefore a large audience who uses this maxim does not know its true meaning. Even at the Faculties of Sport, in subjects related to the history of sport, the maxim is not explained but it is assumed without discussion that the body which deals with physical exercise will have a healthy mind. Since the moment of its inception, through numerous definitions and theories about the relationship between body and mind until today, the maxim was changing its meaning in accordance with time, development trends and living conditions. The main idea is to perceive the issue from two different angles. On one hand, the selective character of the interview should confirm preconceived notions, and on the other hand, theoretically handle everything related to the maxim from its earliest days to present time. The results obtained by these two approaches should be seen in terms of the modern world and tendencies of its development and provide an explanation of the maxim, which will be valid for present time. Method The study is consisted of two parts: theoretical, consisting of etymological and historical research and empirical, which contains selective character survey. The theoretical part consists of historical and etymological approach. The etymological reveals origin of the maxim and its significance at the time when it was made. Historical approach includes all the people who have used the maxim and its major components, body and spirit. The empirical part was presented by the survey, which consisted of three questions that aimed to determine: whether the participants heard of the maxim, do they know who its creator was, and in 3rd question they had option of selecting one of the two most common meanings of the maxim. The survey covered 276 students of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University 555

100 of Novi Sad, including 2 nd (n=88), 3 rd (n=102) and 4 th year (n=86), considering the fact that students in the first year of the study had a subject called Theory of physical education where the maxim was mentioned. The origin of the maxim and historical understandings of mind and body dualism The originator of the maxim Mens sana in corpore sano is the 1 st century AD Roman poet Juvenal. Juvenal wrote it in his 10 th Satire titled The vanity of human wishes. Mens sana in corpore sano is taken out of context, and the whole sentence is Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano which means You should pray for a sound mind in a sound body (Ramsay, 1918). It is important to note that he was not writing about health, recreation or sport at all, according to Ruebel (Ruebel, 2010), he was not exalting physical and mental perfection, he meant only that our health is more important than the false benefits of greed and vanity. Almost nineteen centuries later (1861), first time in modern era, maxim Mens sana in corpore sano was extracted from its context by the Englishman John Hulley, entrepreneur who encouraged public participation in physical education to improve health and well-being. It was only used as a motto of his Liverpool Athletic Club. After John Hulley, Pierre de Coubertin, long-time president of the Olympic Committee, in place of the above mentioned maxim sets maxim Mens fervida in corpore lacertoso which means Fighting spirit in muscular body. According to Coubertin, Mens sana in corpore sano was just a simple hygiene instruction based on restraining, worshiping moderation and aspiring to golden middle (Simonović, 2001). According to him the spirit is not the one that creates character, but that is body (Simonović, 2001). Last of the men from modern era who used this maxim was Avery Brundage, also a long-time president of the Olympic Committee and after that maxim has found its application in recreation, sport, physical activity related to health, commercials, supplements for exercise etc., implying that only a healthy body can support a healthy mind and therefore we should strive to keep our bodies in top condition. However, long before Hulley, Coubertin and Brundage, even before the Juvenal time there were also discussions on the mind and body dualism. Socrates students Xenophon and Plato had different opinions. Xenophon believed that it was unfair to exalt physical strength above the noble mind (Jaeger, 1991) and Plato: Youth should be trained in both gymnastics and literary/artistic matters, because exclusive attention to physical prowess can make a man become brutish, like an animal, but exclusive attention to the mind can make him brittle and soft. The body and mind should be cultivated together. (Jowett, 2008). Plato's student Aristotle was the first to view physical and intellectual training as enemies in constant confrontation, he wrote: Intellect and body must not be worked hard in the same time since the two kinds of exercise naturally counteract one another, exertion of the body being an impediment to the intellect, and exertion to the intellect an impediment to the body. (Aristotle, Politics). First time in new era, highly respected second century AD medical doctor Galen wrote: All natural blessings are either mental or physical. Athletes have never even dreamed of anything mental. They are so lacking in reasoning that they don t even know if they have a brain. They cannot think logically at all they are as mindless as dumb animals. They lead lives like those of swine; except swine do not exercise to excess nor force food down their throats as athletes do. (Young, 2004). These words can be explained by the large difference between the Greek and Roman athletes at that time. After Galen, St. Augustine wrote: God commands the spirit (mind) and the spirit commands to the body, ie. body movement is an expression of the spiritual movement. (Confessions, book 13, chapter 1 ). After ancient period a well-known version of dualism is credited to Rene Descartes, 17 th century philosopher who claimed that human beings are consisted of two quite different substances which could not exist in unity (Ladan, 1998). According to him mind was an extended, an immaterial but thinking substance and body was an extended, material and unthinking substance (Ladan, 1998). For Descartes the man as a thinking matter (res cogitans) can exist without a body (Simonović, 2001). After Descartes, many philosophers defined this dualism: - Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Relationship of man to man is mediated by the relationship of man to nature and our body as the immediate nature. (Simonović, 2001). 556

101 - Johann Friedrich Guts Muths: The highest spiritual development without building the body only represents half a man. (Simonović, 2001). The only real and ultimate goal of gymnastics is harmony between mind and body. (Simonović, 2001). - Friedrich Schiller: Gymnastic exercises admittedly getting the athletes, but beauty- only with free and conforming exercise of all parts of the body. (Schiller, 1967). - Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche: The body is not integral part of the man and the fundamental possibility of experiencing the fullness its human, but is a tool for achieving the non-human goals. (Simonović, 2001). Results The results of the survey are presented in following charts. 1. When asked if they heard of the maxim In healthy body, healthy mind, the answers were: 275 did and only 1 did not. (Chart 1.) 2. When asked if they know who was creator of the maxim In healthy body, healthy mind, answers were: 275 did not and only 1 did. (Chart 2.) 557

102 3. When asked to give opinion what maxim according to them implies, opinions were divided (130/131), including 5.5 % students who represented a different opinion. (Chart 3.) These results indicate that the aforementioned maxim is widely used but its meaning is very little known, more precisely its meaning is not completely clarified. Discussion One part of the study (empirically) has shown that, despite the large use of the maxim, participants did not know who was its creator and even less its true meaning. On the other hand, information about the use of maxim and its main parts, body and mind, have shown that the precise definition never existed, but its definitions were created under the influence of various philosophers and time through which it was passing. Conclusion It is wrong to say that in a healthy body is a healthy mind as it is used in our region, because if so, that would mean that people who do not have a healthy body (ill, injured, etc.) cannot have a healthy mind, which is unacceptable. The right saying is Healthy mind in healthy body, by which is meant that healthy mind can build a healthy body. Whether the mind and body are one substance or two, we should strive for their development, whereby the body should not be instrumentalized but provided with all the necessary freedom to manifest through mind, because perhaps only true physical exercise is one of the preconditions of having a healthy mind. In the 21 st century it is far gone from the Greek arete by mechanization of body movement in almost all spheres of physical exercise (except for health related exercises), which raises the question of whether people who use such a body drill can have a healthy mind. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to: Dr. Ljubodrag Simonović and prof. dr. Miroslav Vukelić for their time and ceded literature. 558

103 References 1. Aristotel: Politika (1970). [Aristotle: Politics]. 1339a-b, Beograd: Kultura. 2. Jaeger, W. (1991). Paideia: Oblikovanje Grčkog čoveka [Paideia: Forming the Greek man]: Novi Sad: Književna zajednica Novog Sada. 3. Jirásek, I. (2006). Epistemology of Movement Culture: The Truth of the Body. 34th Annual Meeting of the International Association for the Philosophy of Sport, September Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. 4. Jowett, B. (2008). Plato: The Republic. 5. Mehta, N., (2011). Mind-body dualism: A Critique from a Health Perspective. In A.R. Singh and S.A. Singh (eds.), Brain, Mind and Consciousness: An International, Interdisciplinary Perspective Ramsay, G.G. (1918). Juvenal s Satires, satire 10., The vanity of human wishes. 7. Reid, L.H. (2006). Philosopher-Athletes in Plato s Republic. 34th Annual Meeting of the International Association for the Philosophy of Sport, September Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. 8. Resnicow, K., Jackson, A., Braithwaite, R., Dilorio, C., Blisset, D., Rahotep, S., & Periasamy, S. (2006). Healthy Body/Healthy Spirit: a church-based nutrition and physical activity intervention. Health Education Research, 17(5), Ruebel, J. (2010). Honors and athletics: The sound body thing. Journal of the National Collegiate Honors council, Schiller, J.H.F. (1967). O lepom. [Aesthetical Essays]: Beograd: Kultura. 11. Simonović, Lj. (2001). Filozofski aspekti modernog olimpizma [Philosophical aspects of modern Olympism]. Beograd: Lorka. 12. Simonović, Lj. (2005). Novi svet je moguć [A new world is possible]. Beograd: FineGraf. 13. St. Augustine. St. Augustine s Confessions. Book 13, Chapter Young, C.D. (2004). A brief history of the Olympic games. Blackwell Publishing. 559

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105 THE MOVE PROJECT: GOOD PRACTICES IN CROSS- CUTTING COMMUNITY INITIATIVES TO PROMOTE HEALTH-ENHANCING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR SOCIO- ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS Giovanni Capelli, Simone Digennaro and Antonio Borgogni University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Human Sciences, Society and Health Department, Italy Abstract Physical activity has proven itself to be one of the single most important determinants for a healthy life. Leading authorities, such as the World Health Organization (WHO), have extensively documented the positive effects of physical activity on health and quality of life. However, it has been equally well documented that inequalities related to access to physical activities are also strongly linked to socioeconomic factors such as income, education, employment and ethnicity. People who are poorer, less educated, unemployed or belonging to specific ethnic groups tend to engage less in physical activity with negative effects for their life. The MOVE project, funded by the European Commission under the Health Programme «Together for Health», aimed at identifying, qualifying and implementing good practices in cross-cutting community initiatives to promote health-enhancing physical activity for socioeconomically disadvantaged groups. Particularly, the MOVE project aimed at collecting and qualifying good practices by focussing on experiences that have been successful in using the movement as a means for targeting groups such as youth, ethnic minorities, girls and women, seniors - living in disadvantaged urban or rural areas and addressing socioeconomic challenges. Through a worldwide data collection launched via several routes and mechanisms, 154 good practices implemented by 132 organisations and representing 35 countries worldwide were collected and analysed against a set of predefined criteria: Evidence of success in connection with defined goals and the target group; sustainability, both in terms of durability of programme results and efficient use of resources at disposal; Structural quality (organising institution, project leadership, project team, distribution of responsibilities, networking, etc.); Process quality (documentations, monitoring, conflict management, etc.); Outcome quality (impact for the target group, cost efficiency, etc.) Based on the data collected, key determinants for organisational readiness directly influencing the quality and the efficacy of a project targeting socially disadvantage groups will be presented and discussed. Keyword: socially disadvantage groups, physical activity, good practices, MOVE project, organisational readiness. Introduction Physical activity has proven itself to be one of the single most important determinants for a healthy life (Lancet, 2012). Leading authorities such as the World Health Organization (WHO) have extensively documented the positive effects of physical activity on health and quality of life(world Health Organisation, 2010). However, it has been equally well documented that inequalities in health related to physical activity are also strongly linked to socioeconomic factors such as income, education, employment and ethnicity. People who are poorer, less educated, unemployed or belonging to specific ethnic groups tend to engage less in physical activity and thus are less healthy 2. 2 Correlates of physical activity: why are some people physically active and others not? Adrian E Bauman, Rodrigo S Reis, James F Sallis, Jonathan C Wells, Ruth JF Loos,Brian W Martin,for the Lancet Physical Activity Series Working Group, The Lancet - 21 July 2012). 561

106 On the light of that, the «European Physical Activity Promotion Forum project» 3 (here and henceforth, MOVE)was launched in 2011 by the International Sport and Culture Association (here and henceforth, ISCA), in collaboration with eight associated partners and fifteen collaborating partners with the aimto identify, qualify and implement good practices in cross-cutting community initiatives to promote health-enhancing physical activity in socio-economically disadvantaged areas. It took a starting point in sport and physical activity stakeholders, operating both at local/national level and European/international level, to build several high-impact cross-cutting partnerships and implement pilot actions with e.g. municipalities, fitness sector, universities, play ground industry, architects and urban planners. Within the general framework of the project an extensive collection of good practices was promoted world-wide with the aim to collect and qualify projects that have been successfulin promoting health-enhancing physical activity for socially disadvantage group and identify key determinants for organisational readiness. In fact, the existing body of work that attempts to explain how organisations can engage socially disadvantaged group in health-enhancing physical activity and thus foster higher level of quality of life is comparatively small. As leading organisation of this specific good practices collection work-package, within the general framework of the project,the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio (here and henceforth, UNICLAM) was required to: - define a data collection strategy aimed at facilitating the self-description of those organisations that have been successful in promoting health-enhancing physical activity; - identify and qualify good practices and determinants for organisational readiness; - formulate handbook and guidelines on how to target socioeconomically disadvantaged groups with the aim to offer a source of inspiration and learning both for organizations as well as individuals engaged in the field of physical activity, sport for all and health enhancement. To the purpose, from October 2011 to June 2012 a worldwide data collection of experiences was launched via several routes and mechanisms: MOVE s web platform ( direct to members, partners, stakeholders and network contacts of the Associate Partners of the MOVE project; direct contacts with European Physical Activity and Sport networks; direct contacts with European sport organisations networks; web posting and electronic newsletters. In parallel a protocol of analysis functional for the project scopes was designed. It was built on the broad consensus that has emerged from an in-depth literature review that UNICLAM in collaboration with ISCA and the University Friedrich-Alexander of Erlangen Nurnberg implemented from March 2011 to November The protocol designed an appropriate evidenced based method of analysis by formulating an interrogative lens based on the MOVE s scope and definingcommon and evidence-based criteria for the identification of good practices. Finally, agroup of reviewers, composed by top-level researchers, experts and prominent practitioners willing to offer their direct support for the analysis and the assessment of practices collected, was established under UNICLAM coordination. A Definition of Good Practice An extensive analysis of the literature was part of the data collection work-package. It has focused on the evidence coming from the scientific research implemented in connection with the identification and the analysis of the concept of good practice. To the purpose the following databases have been inquired: Pubmed, Sportdiscus and Google Scholar.Results showed that in three main areas education, health care and project management- there are substantial bodies of high quality research, thus,uniclam has a high level of confidence in the data and conclusions emerging from those areas. It should be pointed out, however, that there is a vast area of grey literature yielded from projects and experiences implemented at EU level. It refers to reports, internal documents, declarations, etc. that 3 Project co-funded byexecutive Agency Health and Consumers, Health Programme «Together for Health», agreement no.:

107 are difficult to find via conventional channels but that represent an important source of information. Indeed, reviewing this kind of multiple and heterogenic data has a concrete and real advantage in terms of triangulation with the literature review. However there are disadvantages in terms of the comparability of data coming from different approaches in terms of measurement, interpretation and definitions of the key concepts. Overall, for the purposes of the review, we consider that the advantages of reviewing multiple sources of data from different academic disciplines far outweigh the disadvantages. The analysis of the resources examined shows that the concept of good practice is widely recognised at European level and across many sectors and contexts. Simultaneously, it has been recognized that attempts to determine a definition of good practice operating in different sectors and targeting different target groups are difficult and might fail (Advanced Africa, 2002; Euro Sport Health, 2011). Furthermore attempts to find a definition that is widely accepted and that could explain in few lines the nature of a good practice can result as too restrictive. Thus, the term has been subjected of a great deal of debate and a common vision is far away to be identified. However, today a general consensus is emerging around definitions that tend to be less narrow by trying to identify criteria and indicators that can be adopted to analyse and appraise the effectiveness of a practice. A similar approach is suggested by Kahan and Goodstadt who maintain that a good practice occurs «when the processes and activities associated with addressing organizational and health-related issues and conducting research and evaluation reflect health promotion guidelines for each of the following sub-domains: values, goals, ethics, theories and concepts, underlying beliefs and assumptions, evidence, vision and analysis of organizational and health-related environments» (2005). Even though their definition refers to the health promotion domains, it is clear that they have attempted to identify specific points of reference that offer a sort of guideline to judge a practice in a way that is appropriated for the model that they want to adopt. The interest in a definition of a general description of a good practice can be also identified in the health-enhancing physical activity domain and, generally speaking, in the sport sector. In this regard, the Guide for Healthy Physical Activity and Sports Programmes describes a good practice as: «programmes/activities whose structure, planning, resources and valuation contribute positively to creating healthy permanent habits to improve citizen s quality and way of life through optimal physical, mental and social well-being»(euro Sport Health, 2011, p. 21). Consequently, the definition focuses on the impact that intervention has for the target population and also on the sustainability of outcomes achieved (that are expected to be permanent). Furthermore, it outlines determinants for organisational readiness that are crucial to determining concrete and long-lasting outcomes (see Rutten et al., 2009) It should be noted that this trend towards the identification of determinants for success is today widely adopted. In addition, good practices are more and more identified as models that have valid structural and organisational configurations: «Good practices can be seen as operational models and methods which results from different procedures, activities projects or initiatives. These models can aim at producing favourable changes in processes and hence improve the efficiency and/or quality of the outcomes» 4. In this specific case, the definition seeks to introduce a general description of a good practice: it is considered as an effective operational models and methods that must produce concrete and favourable outcomes. Additionally, it is worth noting that models and methods adopted are analysed in connection with the impact that they have in real contexts. Evidences collected indicated that the quality of a practice (and, consequently, the definition of a good practice) is essentially related to three main terms: Compliance with specific principles: a practice is considered good when its fundamental features match principles - such as transferability and/or sustainability, for example that are considerate as determinants for success and as essential features for the effectiveness of a project/practices; the 4 S2-port Consortium, Senion Sport Moving Age project, funded within the Preparatory Action in the Field of Sport Program, agreement n

108 definition, but also the number of principles that a practice should refer to, are, however, extremely various; Organisational and structural configuration: definitions and, as consequence, frameworks adopted for the description, the analysis and the assessment of a project/practice tend to refer to a model describing the configuration that has higher possibilities to be effective and successful; at the organisational level of analysis, higher effectiveness is acknowledged to those organisations that resemble the adopted model; Effectiveness of outcomes achieved: generally, outcomes are appraised in relation to the defined goals (that must be relevant for the social context); in addition it must be proved (evidence of success) the concrete and tangible impact on the target group. On the light of the previous argumentations the definition adopted for the MOVE project has sought to introduce a general description associating good practices with specific structural and organisational elements. Furthermore, it has stressed the quality of outcomes achieved as well as the pertinence of the evidence of success that must be appraised in connection with the target group and the main features of the social context in which the practice is implemented. Thus, a good practice is defined as An initiative in a specific area that has (or may have) a significant impact on its running and may be seen as innovative and fertile and that can be applied generally. In particular, it is a project/programme/activity that includes substantial and well-documented proof of success and that it has had an impact and has successfully met its programme objectives. It must also respond to the following criteria: - Evidence of success in connection with defined goals and the target group; - Sustainability, both in terms of durability of programme results and efficient use of resources at disposal; - Structural quality (organising institution, project leadership, project team, distribution of responsibilities, networking, etc.); - Process quality (documentations, monitoring, conflict management, etc.); - Outcome quality (impact for the target group, cost efficiency, etc.) Method Based on evidence collected with the analysis of the literature a relative simple methodology of data collection has been conceived in order to facilitate a self-description by stakeholders and potential organisations. To the purpose, a self-description questionnaire has been adopted as main method of data collection. It was composed by 27 open-ended and close-ended questions and 7 sections 5. The structure of the questionnaire and the type of items adopted were closely tied with the definition and criteria adopted for the description of a good practice. Thus, the construction of the questionnaire followed a logical course, starting from the broad definition of good practice adopted and passing through the five criteria assumed that have been operationalized in measurable, understandable and observable items (fig 1). 5 Main sections were: General information; Approaches and key activities; Target group; Funding and partnership; Monitoring and Evaluation; Project sustainability and transferability; Lessons learnt. 564

109 Figure 1 The logical course for the construction of the questionnaire Given the wide perspective adopted in the data collection, English was the language adopted for the questionnaire. However, in order to facilitate the self-description of the potential organisation and overcome language barriers a French, Spanish and an Italian version of the questionnaire have been also distributed. of: The use of the questionnaire as main tool for data collection offered undoubted benefits in terms - Flexibility in the distribution via different routes and mechanisms (such as direct , web posting, etc.); - Requests allocation: the complexity and the variety of the information requested to the organisation for the description of the practice/project required, in fact, the contribution of all the human resources (such as managers, coaches, etc.) involved in the implementation of practice/project described; - Standardisation,with a fixed set of questions ensuring that each responder answered to the some set of items; - Costs-effectiveness:a large audience of potential organisations has been reached with reduced costs. Before the questionnaire was circulated more widely, it had been tested out on a small target group (n=6). The approach to the process of pilot test was based on a legitimate hybrid of qualitative and quantitative methodology established on three interrelated phases: a first phase aimed at pilot testing the questionnaire was followed by a second phase in which respondents were asked to take part in a one-toone interview and, finally, during the MOVE steering meeting, Partner Associations were involved in anhoc session in which the questionnaire was revised in a participative process. Particularly, during the last phase, each partner was required to highlight strengths and weaknesses, and then share and discuss them with all the other partners. In particular, data gathered via the pre-test phase, the interviews and the working session were analysed against a set of specific dimensions. To the purpose, an ad-hoc literature review of the existing 565

110 models of analysis adopted for testing the quality of a questionnaire was undertook. Based on this literature reviews 6 a framework of analysis comprising eight different dimensions has been conceived and adopted for data analysis and data revision. Dimension and sub dimensions adopted were the following: Reading: determined if it is difficult for the interviewers to read the question uniformly to all respondents;instruction: looked for problems with any introductions, instructions, hints, or explanations from the respondent s point of view; Clarity: identified problems related to communicating the intent or meaning of the question to the respondent; Assumptions: determined if there are problems with assumptions made or the underlying logic;knowledge/memory: checked whether respondents are likely to not know or have trouble remembering/gathering information;sensitivity/bias: assessed questions for sensitive nature or wording, and for bias;response Categories: assessed the adequacy of the range of responses to be recorded;other: looked for problems not identified in the other issues such as: time required for completing the questionnaire; comments about the general framework of the questionnaire, and so on. On the basis of the analysis of data and inputs collected during the pilot-test a new amended version of the questionnaire was conceived and disseminated. After the data collection phase, the assessment phase was initiated. In this phase the group of reviewer was established and the working plan defined with an equal subdivision of the practices among the reviewers. The main task of each reviewer was to analyse and appraise experiences collected by applying the designed protocol during their process of reviewing. More in details, each reviewer was required to apply the assessment protocol and analyse practices assigned in accordance with the definition and criteriaadopted. Results The call reached a large number of potential stakeholders: 132 organisations positively responded by sending the description of 164 projects. In line with the assessment criteria mentioned, 10projects were not analysedeither because were partially submitted or they were not respondent to the call. Europe is the most represented continent, and United Kingdom (43 practices), Germany (21), Denmark (13), Italy (11) and Spain (9) are countries with the higher number of projects. Of the sample, small scale projects (less than as overall budget) are implemented in the 23% of the cases; 51 projects (33%) are medium scale (overall budget between and ) and 56 projects (36%) are big scale (more than ).In many cases funds for activities are provided by external organizations, both public and private, that give money support for the development of the proposed project. Participants, in few cases, are required to pay a fee to take part in the proposed activities. However, the fee, when requested, is rather small and represents a small part of the overall budget (less than the 5%). Deprived neighbourhood, income and social opportunity are the 3 main social issues addressed by the projects. Then, it is worth noting that the 70% of the projects tries to offer activity tackling more than 2 social disadvantages. The median duration of activities described is 3 years. Organisations are more incline to target children and young people (5-12 years), teenagers (13-19 years), and young adults (20-40 years) by directly operating within communities, sport clubs and urban setting. The majority tends to adopt a participatory approach with the target group that was not consulted only in 5 cases. 6 For more information, see: Siniscalco, M.T., Auriat, N. (2008). Questionnaire design. International institute for education planning: Paris; Willis. G.B, Lessler, J.T. (1999). Question Appraisal System. QAS99, Research Triangle Institute: Rockville, MD; Local Government Data Unit (2009). A guide to Questionnaire Design. Local government Data Unit: Wales;Silverman, D. (2009). Qualitative Research: Theory, Method and Practice. Sage: London; Brace. I. (2010). Questionnaire Design: How to Plan, Structure and Write Survey Material for Effective Market Research. Market Research in Practice: USA. 566

111 From an organisational point of view, evidence shows that only in the 41 % of the cases a quality management approach is adopted. In addition, a general lack in terms of planning, monitoring and evaluation can be reported.furthermore, the majority is inclined to not adopt evidence-based approach to appraise the impact that activities have on the target group. Overall, organisations report a large partnership both with private and public organisations supporting the development of and the implementation of the activities. On the local level the partnership with local authorities is widely adopted. They provide funds and materials for the project. Additionally, they are also actively involved in the implementation of the activities. Generally, organisations reported concrete and well-defined objectives that tend to be SMART, mainly specific, measurable, acceptable for the target group, realistic and time-framed 7.Regarding sustainability, organisations reported scarce attention for the continuation of the project, after the formal end. Simultaneously, only a small part operates to empower and promote ownership among target groups and/or stakeholders. In this regards, a lack of financial resources is usually seen as the main obstacles that organisations experience. Discussion Results indicated that, in most successful project, specific organisational features are determinant for action promoting physical activity among socially disadvantaged group. Firstly, a clear definition of the objectives that the organisation wants to achieve is a key determinant for success. The literature analysed and evidence collected suggested that organisations should refer to the already mentioned SMART model. In addition, it can be argued that the involvement of the target group in the definition of the objectives offers a solid ground for success of the project. The direct participation of the target group along with the largest part of the relevant stakeholders might also be considered as a valuable factor playing a central role in the achievement of certain specific aims (empowerment of the target group, for instance) and in the definition of activities that are suitable with regard to the target group and the social context. As general trend, as described above, organisations use a little part of the resources at their disposal for monitoring and evaluation. Particularly, the use of evidence-based model for appraising the impact on the target groups and measuring the real achievement of the desired objectives is scarcely adopted. Partially, this might be explained by the fact that organisations used only a little part of the fund at disposal for monitoring and evaluation. In addition, stakeholders supporting projects only in rare case require concrete evidence of success from the supported organisation. Despite this evidence, we believe that the use of an evidence-base monitoring and evaluation model might be highly relevant for the success of a project. A similar determinant was identified by Coalter (2008)as relevant component of the process of successful management and delivery of all sports development programmes. A broader interpretation of the results with regard to the support of the project from different local governing levels and organisational entities yields valuable information about the efficacy of healthenhancing physical activity project among socially disadvantaged groups. It can be easily argued that a project might have a concrete and lasting effect on individuals when is integrated with other projects/activities targeting the same group of individuals and promoting similar goals and approached. The engagement of organisations, both public and private, operating at different levels, might determine the creation of an integrated system of intervention that put individuals within a network of interconnected organisations and servicesfocusing on a collaborating approach that combines activities and resources with the aim to promote social and community development. 7 Definition and description of SMART model in Meyer, P. J. (2003). What would you do if you knew you couldn t fail? Creating S.M.A.R.T. Goals. Attitude Is Everything: If You Want to Succeed Above and Beyond. Meyer Resource Group. 567

112 References 1. Advanced Africa (2002). The Best Practices Compendium - Conclusions and Lessons Learned from the Advisory Group Meetings. 2. Brace, I. (2010). Questionnaire Design: How to Plan, Structure and Write Survey Material for Effective Market Research. USA: Market Research in Practice. 3. Coalter, F. (2008). Sport-in-Development. A monitoring and evaluation manual. Stirling: University of Stirling. 4. Euro Sport Health (2011). European Guide of Healthy Physical Activity and Sports Programmes Methodology and compilation of best practices. Directorate of Communications Barcelona Provincial Council: Spain. 5. Kahan, B., & Goodstadt, M. (2005). The IDM Manual-A guide to the IDM (Intercative Domain Model) best practices approach to better health (3rd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto. 6. Local Government Data Unit. (2009). A guide to Questionnaire Design. Local Government Data Unit: Wales. 7. Meyer, P. J. (2003). What would you do if you knew you couldn t fail? Creating S.M.A.R.T. Goals. Attitude Is Everything: If You Want to Succeed Above and Beyond. Meyer Resource Group. 8. Rutten, A., Roger, U, Abu-Omar, K., & Frahsa, A. (2009). Assessment of organizational readiness for health promotion policy implementation: test of a theoretical model, Health Promotion International Advance, 24(3), Silverman, D. (2009). Qualitative Research: Theory, Method and Practice. Sage: London. 10. Siniscalco, M.T., and Auriat, N. (2008). Questionnaire design. International institute for education planning: Paris. 11. The Lancet. (2012). Physical Activity. London: The Lancet. ( 12. Willis, G.B, & Lessler, J.T. (1999). Question Appraisal System. QAS99, Research Triangle Institute: Rockville, MD. 13. World Health Organisation. (2010). Global recommendations on physical activity for health. Geneva: World Health Organisation. 568

113 VOUCHER SYSTEM IN SPORT Peter Melek Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia Abstract In the field of sport a strategic aim of us is to identify and apply in long term perspective a system of support to different forms and levels of sports with emphasis on sporting and physical activities of children, youth, and a national sport representation. This system of support should be effective and based on ethical principles. The core priority of us in that field is to make the children move (Antala, 2009). Intention of the pilot project is to verify a system of organization and financing of physical activities. To prove the impact of the state subsidy on increasing participation of target group in physical activities offered by different sports organizations. Also identify mechanism to restrain smooth and transparent organization and financing of physical activities. Target groups of the pilot project are girls and boys attending primary schools, from 1 st to 9 th grade. We are going to carry out the project in experiment form. In every region of Slovakia we will select two primary schools. One of them is from urban and other from rural environment. Together, there are 16 schools within the project. Increasing of the subsidy, in form of vouchers, would be an experimental factor in this project. The vouchers would be valid only for purpose of sporting activities and could be used by wide spectrum of providers. Keywords: Leisure sport, voucher, organization, funding Introduction Sport voucher is a new tested system of funding leisure physical activities in Slovakia. Main idea of that program is offering to all students value 50 Euro in voucher form (pict. 1).This voucher is usable by all providers and organizators (schools, sportclubs, private coaches, ect.) in student s locality of living. Obviously, support should be used by provider just for physical activities. Transparenty publishing of presence was required. Therefore, the main method of receiving data was questionnaire (pic.). Data were processed by frequency occurrence to two groups: - Students registered by voucher to physical activities - Students, whose didn t use voucher After that registration process ware all physical activities observed. Results are interpreting in graphs and in conclusion are the main facts about project and guidelines for next using that system. 569

114 Picture 1. Sport voucher 570

115 Project schedule a) Start The project was scheduled at the meeting of main group. There were planned main rules and Project schedule. b) The selection of schools and members as regional coordinators Selection 16 schools (2 from each region, one rural, one urban). For each school locational soon ecoordinator (employee upon agree mentwith ministry), who keeps methodology throughout the project). c) Meeting of project committee Meeting of all coordinators and directors of selected schools was organized. There was presented the project and assigned thet asks. d) Create menu in locations Sent s to sport federation to inform about the project. Coordinators reported information in locations. Every trainer had to sign the contract to be included in to project. e) Submission Coordinators of all the locations posted menu, which they managed to create. Project manager checked menus and created the central database and form of voucher. f) Printing and distribution sports vouchers to every pupil Vouchers printed and distributed to all schoolpupils. An opportunity for distributionis a plenary meeting of parents. g) Vouchers collected from students Regional coordinators have collected vouchers in cooperation with the schools. h) Grant-request Coordinators send a request for grants. i) Workout Realization of the workouts in localities. 35 time per semester. j) The implementation of exercise units, inspection, registration. Trainer shall create and publish records of attendance. k) Termination of the sport activities. l) Data collection, questionnaire survey. Data processing. m) Presentation of results and the completion of research. Formulate results and headlines for further implementation. 571

116 Picture 2. Localities, wherewechecked a vouchersystem For project we re received 6128 student from slovak schools. 1 city elementary school and 1 village elementary school from each region of Slovakia. Results The number of used voucher was different depents on locality. Highest number was recieved and in Petrovany (80 %) and lowest in Majcichov (25,6 %). Picture 3.Usedsportvouchers 572

117 More prefered were activities was in school activities, as you can see on picture nr. 4. Picture. 4 Number of sport vouchers in out of school and in school activities System weaknesses (-) Competition between providers does not play a dominant role in relation to the quality of education and higher educational achievement by students. Socio-economic conditions in the family are factors that play a major role in terms of learning Structural competition doesn t reduce costs. Especially, if there ason for the higher number of competing providers is creating a number of small schools. In addition, competition between providers depends on the location. Competition between providers encourages adoption of strategies that increase their attractiveness forminimal cost. Students who are providers "interesting" are those who come from well families with good education, without special needs which actually leads to selection of students. System strenghts (+) Selection on parents- Parents should know to choose education for their children. Choice of parents should ensure a harmonious social relations and direct financial responsibility of parents. Direct financial responsibility of parents- historically, schools have been funded by third parties, rarely consider the needs and preferences of families as a guide. If parents know that money directed to schools, they are entitled to play anactive role in the functioning, Freedom of education- as it is important to give parents the freedom to choose, it is important for teachers to implement their activities and skills. Teachers must be able to vote and the innovative practices, because the lack of freedom can easily lead to frustration, loss of interest, inefficiency, or educational stagnation. Competition between providers of education- if the education market should to work properly, there must exist a critical mass of service providers who compete with each other to obtain student. 573

118 Profit motive- except for those four factors, is it important and to make a profit motive to provide quality education in the long run, Universal access to good providers form everyone. Conclusion To receive value of system effectivity we need to know data about students presence without system aplication. The rate of students permanently active in physical activities is, by Zapletalova (2010) 43,1 %. Rate received during voucher system project testing is 53,3 %. So we have identify cca 10 % difference on positive side. References 1. Antala, B. 2009,Telesná a športová výchova v základných a stredných školách v SR po prvom roku transformácie vzdelávania,in. Národná konferencia o školskom športe, Slovenský školský šport, Podmienky - Prognózy - Rozvoj, Slovenská asociácia univerzitného športu v spolupráci s MŠ SR, Bratislava, Zapletalova, Ľ. a kol.: Sekulárny trend v ukazovateľoch telesného rozvoja a pohybovej výkonnosti u 7 18-ročnej školskej populácie na Slovensku. Riešené , č. 1/0048/

119 SPORTS COMPONENT IN TOURISM ANALYSIS OF ADVENTURE TOURISM Nevena Ćurčić, Ivana Todorović, Svetlana Vukosav and Vuk Garača Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Abstract Tourism is largely offers a variety of recreational facilities of varying intensity. Sports activities contribute to the relaxing effect of tourists. Today, one can single out a special form of tourismdominated sport. It is an adventure tourism. The paper explores specific examples of adventure activities in Vojvodina, as well as their offering to the tourist agency arrangements. The aim is to determine whether it is justified to become a stand-alone adventure tourism product in the area of Vojvodina, as well as there is interest in this form of supply in the market. In addition to field studies, the paper used the following methods: comparative, analytical and synthetic, methods of criticism. Keywords: sport, adventure tourism, offer, tourist agencies. Introduction Tourism offers rest, entertainment, leisure and relaxation to those who taking part in tourist trips. Tourists expect traveling to restore their physical and mental strength, improve their mood and restore energy for a longer period of time when they return to their desks and commitments at work. It is a well-known fact that physical activity is the best way to recover body and this is why tourism, to a great extent, offers a variety of recreational facilities of various intensities. Sports activities provide more relaxing effect to tourists. From the very beginning of organizing trips, walking and strolling, swimming, ball games, dancing and similar activities have been part of the travel agencies offer. Sport and recreation occupy the central or additional activities in a tourist offer, but are always included (Ćurčić, 1997). These days, a special form of tourism that is dominated exclusively by sports activities could be singled out, and it is adventure tourism. In recent years, the adventure tourism has been considered a unique form of tourism. This singling out goes along with the aspiration of tourists to experience a lot of excitement during their journeys, adventures, and even some risky moments that would add to the feeling of excitement and high adrenaline. However, a clear definition of this form of tourism has not been done having in mind that many other forms of tourism border and overlap with the current understanding of adventure tourism (Buckley, 2006). Thus, for example, eco-tourism, rural tourism, cultural tourism, nautical tourism and sports tourism overlap in their characteristics with adventure tourism (adventure-culture-ecotourism (ACE) (Fennell, 2001) and nature-eco-adventure-tourism (NEAT) (Buckley, 2000). What differentiates adventure tourism from other forms of tourism is that this particular form contains elements of risk, requiring higher levels of physical fitness and mastery of specific skills that would contribute to achieving the objective (Hrabovski-Tomić, 2008). Market segments of adventure tourism The main characteristics of the adventure tourism according to Swarebrooke (2003) are uncertain outcome, danger and risk, challenge, the expected reward, stimulation and excitement, escapism and withdrawal, exploration and discovery, concavity and concentration, conflicting emotions. On the basis of the above mentioned observations it could be concluded that the adventure tourism is mainly made up of extreme sports and locations and hostile nature. However, everyone does 575

120 not experience an adventure in the same way. The age groups do not look the same at the adventure experience, and thus for the younger population skydiving is adventure, along with exploring canyons, mountain biking, while those in their 50s and 60s prefer strolling in nature, bird watching, fishing, balloon flight, etc Therefore, depending on the risks included, adventure tourism can have different modalities of soft to hard version. As the adventure component is heavier, the level of physical challenges is higher, as well as perceptive risks and elements of danger. Rough adventures include clients who have already experienced some activities they practice, because they involve elements of risk. Therefore, the participants must be physically and mentally ready. Soft adventures involve less active participants with little or no experience and require less physical risk. Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA) has conducted the research in 2010 under the name Adventure travel market which established the basic characteristics of the tourist who participated in these trips, as well as the economic importance of adventure tourism. According to ATTA adventure tourists are mostly allo-centric tourists, those seeking lots of activities, constantly on the move, looking for some kind of challenge and personal fulfillment, while respecting the trend of healthy lifestyles and increased concern about the environment. They explore new places, spend more time outdoors, meet and become close with the local population, define the limits of physical capacity. The relationship is the same with single and married persons, men and women, and even in hard activities. The average age is 35 years. Tourists who seek adventure are highly educated (70% on average), so it is no surprise that they are of high purchasing power. The survey also showed that the hard adventurers go to other countries looking for a challenge, while soft adventurers participate more in domestic adventure tourism. It is believed that a large percentage of these tourists are willing to accept restrictive tourism infrastructure in favor of a unique experience. They often embark on a journey to a new, so far unexplored destination and disclose them before other tourists, i.e., they do not follow the paths of mass tourists ( Table 1 How The Adventure Travelers Prepare for Their Trips? Research online 23.2% Consult friends and family 17.8% Book airfare/hotels online 11.4% Consult magazines/newspapers 8.7% Visit a travel agent 8.1% Purchase a guidebook 7.5% Book through a travel agent 5.8% Watch a travel program about the destination 5.6% Will not prepare before leaving the destination 5.2% Visit a destinations marketing or tourism promotion organization 4.1% Book through a tour operator 2.7% Source: According to Table 1, it could be concluded that the Internet plays a big role in informing tourist, as well as in booking transport and accommodation (34.6%). This comes as no surprise since this is all about young tourists who are accustomed to using the Internet in everyday life, and the growing importance of the Internet as a distributive, communicative and selling channel (Ćurčić, 2006). Adventure tourists can also rely on word-of-mouth, i.e., they make inquiries with their friends and relatives about their experiences and impressions of tourist destinations (17.8%). It could be noted that tour operators (2.7%) and tourist services (5.8%) have a small share in the preparation of an adventurous travel, and that has a negative impact on the major tourism industry stakeholders. 576

121 On average, the hard adventurers spend less compared to the soft adventures, mostly because they themselves organize the trips, while soft adventurers pay arrangements through travel agencies. On the other hand, hard adventurers spend large amounts of money on equipment that is necessary for their adventurous journeys (Table 2). Table 2 Gear Budget as % of Trip Expenditure Cost of the Trip Hard Adventurers 462 $ 87.0 Soft Adventurers 822 $ 42.5 Other Travelers 591 $ 43.2 Source: % of Trip Expenditure The value of the global adventure market is $89billion. These days, the value of tourism market of special interest in Europe is estimated at 443 thousand arrivals, where 44% are solo travelers and 56% are tours organized by tour operators. The biggest source markets of special interest are Germany (102,000), United Kingdom (71,000), France (31,000), the Netherlands (27,000) and Italy (22,000). In financial terms, this market in just four countries has a value of about 177 million. The average expenditure of German tourists per trip is 693, Great Britain 699, France 1027 and the Netherlands 944. It should be noted that the data presented include all kinds of special forms of tourism that, along with the adventure tourism, include nautical tourism, volunteer tourism, eco, morbid, hunting, religious, etc. (Strategija razvoja turizma Republike Srbije, 2005; Anić, 2009). According to the index of development of adventure tourism (ATDI), as determined by the ATTA, Serbia is located on 144th place (out of 165 developing countries). Adventure tourist offer in Vojvodina According to the research by the authors, Vojvodina are numerous developed forms of adventure tourism such as paragliding, parachuting, hang-gliding, free climbing, mountaineering, orienting, hiking, biking, bird watching, horseback riding, paintball, catacombs (underground passages) of the Petrovaradin Fortress, camping in nature, fishing, hunting. In addition to the existing ones, it is possible to develop a number of other forms of adventure tourism such as: balloon flight, bungee jumping, tubing, water skiing, zorbing, kayaking, adrenaline park, hiking and trekking, jeep ride, ATV vehicles and engines, sailing, archery, panoramic flight, etc. Most of these sports and activities are practiced at specific locations in Vojvodina, with sports clubs organizing them, and they could become an integral part of tourist offer (Todorović, 2011). The subject of this research is the offer and presence of adventure tourism in the travel agencies in Vojvodina. The aim of the research is to find out to what extent is the adventure tourism part of the travel agencies offers in Vojvodina, how those trips are organized i.e., who are the partners the travel agencies work with, what are the reasons for the lack of adventure arrangements at some agencies and whether they are planning to explore the market demand and possibly subsequently include such programs. Method The sample in the research included 30 travel agencies in Vojvodina. Out of that, 28 agencies were from Novi Sad, one from Zrenjanin and one from Stara Pazova. Since Novi Sad is the largest administrative center of Vojvodina, the largest number of agencies that participated in this research was from this town. The invitation to participate in the survey was sent by mail to 50 agencies located in other towns in Vojvodina, but they did not respond. It is assumed that they do not have the adventure tourism packages in their offers. 577

122 The method that was used in this survey was a questionnaire of 16 questions divided into 4 groups. The first group consisted of general questions about the travel agency and a question about the existence of an offer of adventure arrangement at the agency. The second group consisted of questions for agencies that had adventurous arrangements in their offers. The third group consisted of questions for agencies that have had only certain adventure activities included in the package. The fourth group of questions was also intended for agencies that had no adventure arrangements in their offers. Results Out of the 30 agencies surveyed, 27 (90%) stated that their tourist package offer did not contain travels that could be linked to adventure in Vojvodina, while only 3 (10%) agencies had them. There is an agency that is even specialized in adventure tourism. Asked whether they organize adventure travels in other parts of Serbia or the surrounding countries, 8 (27%) stated that they organize such offers. In the most cases it is about rafting on the rivers: the Lim, the Drina, the Neretva and the Tara, as well as hiking, biking and exploring mountains in southern and western Serbia. While examining the offers of adventure tourism in Vojvodina (3 agencies) it was found that the demand was unsatisfactory and trips were therefore organized to a request or inquiry of groups, and they do not have such arrangements in their regular offer. It is possible to organize: paragliding, ballooning, kayaking, panoramic flights by plane, hang gliding flying, parachuting, mountaineering, free climbing, biking, horseback riding, bungee jumping, riding a scooter, jeep safaris, paintball, kayaking on the Danube. Sports clubs and associations are the main partners in the organization of such arrangements. Placer of order of adventure arrangements can themselves decide what activities they want to experience, how long the journey would last, the number of persons it should to be organized for, or they could choose from a package that is in the optional offer. These are in most cases team-building trips, although they could be arranged for other specific groups. The reason why there were no fixed offers in the questioned agencies is the lack of demand. There is no habit to go on such trips in tourist demand, as well as an easy option of an independent organization. Agencies that do not have the adventure contents in their offers cited the following as a reason for this: insufficient attractive offer for this type of tourism in Vojvodina, insufficient demand and therefore it is not profitable to organize such arrangements, selling tour operator packages that do not offer adventure programs (subagent), organizing travel arrangements abroad because they sell the best, Vojvodina s brand is based on the rural and cultural tourism while tourist infrastructure and advertising are not developing in the direction of adventure tourism. Therefore, 24 (89%) agencies do not plan to explore the market and include the adventure tourism in their offers, 3 (11%) agencies still do not know or have not yet thought about that. Conclusion In the end, it could be concluded that each trip can be an adventure, depending on the level of risks it includes. It is primarily an active vacation that is distinguished by its modalities, depending on the activities that are experienced (from mild to harsh). It is a tourism that is composed of other types of tourism (eco-tourism, rural tourism, sports tourism), but it differs from them by excitement, adrenaline, challenge, expedition, risk, sports and other activities that make it up. This research has confirmed that there are numerous activities in Vojvodina that could be a part of the adventure tourist offer. However, the adventure tourism in Vojvodina is not developed, the market demand is not sufficiently developed so that the adventure tourism could be a part of permanent offers of the travel agencies, the tourism industry does not have a leading role in organizing these arrangements, those who love adventure sports and activities plan their own arrangements and join associations engaged in certain sports. Majority of the agencies surveyed does not plan market research and does not recognize the niche of adventure tourism as potentially important for future marketing of their products. It could be concluded that in the last three years this segment of demand has been in decline, because the only specialized agency in adventure tourism in Vojvodina was closed in

123 References 1. Anić, T. (2009). Specifični oblici turizma posebnih interesa na primeru Jugoistočne i Jugozapadne Srbije. Beograd: Univerzitet Singidunum. 2. Buckley, R. (2000). Neat trends: current issues in nature, eco- and adventure tourism. International Journal of Tourism Research, volume 2, Issue 6, Buckley, R. (2006). Adventure Tourism. Wallingford, UK: CABI. 4. Ćurčić, N. (1997). Oblici vanpansionskih aktivnosti u Robinson i Mediteran klubovima, Turizam, 1, Ćurčić, N. (2006). Prezentacija turističke ponude Srbije na Internetu, Glasnik Srpskog geografskog društva, sveska LXXXVI broj 2, Fennell, D. (2001) A content analysis of ecotourism definitions. Current Issues in Tourism, 4(5), Hrabovski-Tomić, E. (2008). Selektivni oblici turizma. Fakultet za uslužni biznis, Sremska Kamenica. 8. Rabotić, B. (2009). Selektivni oblici turizma. Beograd: Visoka turistička škola strukovnih studija. 9. Swarbrooke, J. (2003). Adventure tourisam: The new frontier. Buterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. 10. Todorović, I. (2011). Uloga i značaj avanturističkog turizma u Vojvodini, Master rad, Novi Sad: Prirodno-matematički fakultet, Departman za geografiju, turizam i hotelijerstvo. 11. *** (2005) Strategija razvoja turizma Republike Srbije prvi fazni izveštaj. Horwath Consulting Zagreb, Ekonomski fakultet Beograd, str

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125 MILITARY SPORT TRAINING CENTERS IN LATVIAN COASTLINE: EXAMPLE OF SPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IN PERIPHERAL AREAS Jānis Balodis Faculty of Geography ans Earth Science, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia Abstract In Latvian coastline have located 15 military sport tarining centers. Military sport training centers which are located in Latvian coastline are characterized also as a leisure and atrction zone for peripheral communities (administrative units). In these centers have also cultural centers where is possible attend nonmilitary sport events like a exhibitions. The main structure and functions for military sport training centers are 1) military sports and fitness, 2) programs for singles and military families and 3) military campgrounds and recreational facilities all over the world. Mostly in these 15 military sport training centers, which is selected from Republic of Latvia, Ministry of Defence sport, are provided water sport and related facilities. In order to provide more opportunities for the general public to enjoy the great fun of water sports activities and to improve their skills in water sports through participation in various training programmes. The main goal of this research is the identification and classification of the Latvian coastline publicē military sport tra, their categorization according to their expenditures including here types of energy resources and their cost. Keywords: Latvian coastline, militarism, sport centers, sport geography, borderland. Introduction Military sport buildings in Latvia are mostly built in Soviet time. Location of military sport training buildings established by institutions by military service intitutions and communist party. Buildings and training camps was structurized in two levels 1) training centers (multifunctional sport complex) and 2) military sport camps. Military training for these contractors can entail everything from police tactics to handling medical emergencies, with instruction available through many different organizations (LU EVF Vides zinatnes un parvaldibas instituts, 2005). Central s Military Sports program of Latvia plans to use the NATO grant funds to finance the Regional Center of Excellence, a group of camps that help emerging disabled military athletes excel in the olympic sports. Most military sport centers and camps are managed by Defence Ministry of Latvia and National Armed forces of Latvia. It provides an overview of key Military Infrastructure and Logistics companies catering to the Military Infrastructure and Logistics sector, together with insights such as key alliances, strategic initiatives and a brief financial analysis. Given the changes in the geographically strategic environment of Latvia, as well as the new threats for security, the military strategy defines the tasks of the National Armed Force, the military capacities needed for the accomplishment of thes The goal for the development of the military capacities of the Latvian Armed Force is the strengthening of the NATO collective defence, efficiency/preparedness of the Alliance as a whole, as well as the contribution in the respective rapid reaction force of UN and ES (Kreslins, 2010). 581

126 Sustainable coastline managament Roads and socialeconomical clusters Military closed zones for security Territorial planning aspects for coatline local authorities Facilities providing by military services 1. Swimming pool; 2. Gym; 3. Multifunctional hall; 4. Open stadium; 5. Gymnastics room; 6. Aerobics hall; 7. Coffee - house Figure 1. Sport complex management and cooperation between convergence factors in Latvian coastline (Satrevics and Zvanitajs, 2010) A military sport complex is a facility, settlement, reservation, or installation that shelters military equipment and personnel. The military sport complex as well as training camps may also contain large concentrations of military supplies in order to support military logistics. These are restricted to the general public, and only authorized personnel may enter them (be it military personnel or their relatives). In the soviet time military bases usually provided housing, cleanliness facilities, and dining halls, gyms, and other type of recreational facilities (such as sport courts, schools, parks, etc) (see: Fig 2). Method In this reserach is used literature analysis and comparative analysis. Data is collected from local planning documents and territorial reports from Latvian coastline planning regions. Applied methodology is used for field course where are collected and selected from three aspects. If military sport complex are used from 1) civil sector uselessa and 2) development relations between public sector and state sector, are the main problem defination obstacle. 582

127 Structure of military sport training centers in Latvia coastline Number of military sport training tupe buildings Gyms Air-open stadiums Military sport elevated roads Swimming pools Military sport training building types Figure 2. Military sport training building type structure in Latvian coastline (Balodis & Svane, 2012) The majority of military sport training building types is military sport elevated roads, which are located in Latvian coastline. Military sport elevated roads are established in populated places (villages and small towns). The second largest military sport training building type is gyms. Gyms which are used for local sport activities are used also for schoolchilds for them sport lessons. Approximately 56 local primary and secondary schools (see: Fig 2) used military sport gyms in their lessons. The third largest military sport training building type group is air - open stadiums which in Latvian coastline are 3. Air open stadiums are located in the biggest coastline cities (Riga, Ventspils and Liepāja). In these air open stadiums are acting athletics competitions. Air open stadiums are also used for local festivāls and Attendance in Latvian coastline sport complex (Gyms): Number of attenders Years Figure 3. Number of attenders in military sport complexes (Balodis & Svane, 2012) The total number of attenders who are visited military sport complexes in Latvian coastline is (in period ). Attenders are military service persons and schoolchilds. Schoolchilds attend military sport complex from local municipalities. 668 of them are located in coastal administrative units. Latvian coastal borderlands include strict administtrative units (110 counties ~ (latvian: novadi)) which are established in Local inovative economy planners are local authorities and entrepreuners. The analyze for the biggest attendance is stressed in 2008, when the biggest number of attenders were

128 Discussion This reserach is involved systematical geography with innovations and sustainable tourism which are related with militarism aspect. This theme is economic geography of militarism (Collier & Sambanis. 2005). The economic geographies of militarism extend also to the defense industry, that sector engaged with the manufacture of weapons systems and other military material, and the networks and supply chains through which components are brought together, and manufactured objects distributed nationally and globally (Collier & Sambanis. 2005). Conclusion Mostly sport military complex are located in these Latvian coastline local authorities, which are included in military districts. The total number of military sport training building types is 26. The biggest number of attenders was in 2008, when military sport complex in Latvian coastline attend 3911 attenders. The main development impacts from Latvian coastline example are territorial periphery impact and water tourism. Water tourism is involved in sport military complex, espicially in aquatoriums. References 1. Balodis, J., & Švāne, B. (2012). Military buildings and landscapes in Latvian borderland: comparison of history and contemporary situation. International Conference of Young Scientists in Humanities & Social Sciences. Siaulai, Lithuania. 2. LU EVF Vides zinatnes un parvaldibas instituts. (2005). Integreta piekrastes parvaldiba Multimediju talmacibas kurss macibu materials (p. 347). Riga: LU EVF. 3. Satrevics, V., & Zvanitajs, J. (2010). Innovation Implementations Problems in Latvia. Scientific Сonference Business Management and Education (23 36). Lithuania, Vilnius. 4. Collier, P., & Sambanis, N. (2005). Evidence and Analysis: Understanding civil war Europe, Central Asia, and Other Regions. Washington, The World Bank. 5. Collins, J.M. (1998). Military geography for professionals and public. Washington D.C., Brassey s edition. 584

129 THE ROLE OF LEADERS IN MANAGING STRATEGIC CHANGES IN THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA AND IN WOMEN'S SPORT Milka ðukić 1, Milica ðukić 2 and Milorad ðukić 2 1 Graduate School of Management in Sport, Alfa University, Belgrade, Serbia 2 Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Abstract Sense of strategy is an important element in the management. Under this sense means that the top management agrees with the direction in which their organization is trying to target. The basis of the necessity of leadership lies in the dynamic management of the development of human society today. The leader is the one who can lead the organization in today's turbulent environment, because he is the one who can successfully cope with the changes. Leadership is based on a vision of how to survive and win in change. The latest findings in the field of human values, the development of consciousness and functioning of the human brain are providing us with valuable insights and tools that can penetrate into the most important drivers of human activities and to use them in a positive way. Innovation leadership is crucial. Reliable communication and strong sense of belonging among employees is the basis of prosperity sports center. It takes knowledge to successfully manage human capital, to attract, develop, retain and reward the right people to achieve set goals and follow a strategy center. To achieve the best results, it is essential to organizing and managing human resources. Keywords: management, leadership, change, women's sports, productivity. Introduction Sense of strategy is an important element in the management, under that sense it is understood that the top management agrees with the direction in which their organization is trying to target. In the business environment, the basic resource of any organization are the people and their skills, which contribute to the achievement of organizational goals. Their creativity, innovation, motivation, awareness of the characteristics that make them different from other resources in the enterprise. Therefore, the athletes are the most important resource in the creation of additional female vredosti Sports. People have more knowledge and information and the management of resources ljudkim harder. It takes knowledge to successfully manage human capital, to attract, develop, retain and reward the right people to achieve set goals and follow a strategy of development of women's sport in the RS. The efficient management of human resources is the most important activity of any business oragnizacije.da to get the best results, it is essential to organizing and managing human resursima.konkretne definitions are mainly based on its function of human resource management in order to achieve better organizational goals. The basis of the necessity of leadership lies in the dynamic management of the development of human society today. The whole of human knowledge now doubles within a period of 2.5 years. The leader is the one who can lead the organization in today's turbulent environment, because he is the one who can successfully cope with the changes. So, leadership and change are synonymous when discussing business leadership. Kjuč a leader in dealing with people, emotional leader's primary role. While management of the organization carrying out the plans, the equivalent of leadership is communication between those who are on their way to achieving their vision. Determining the direction, management, can be a static feature because by determining the direction is not necessary that the person who is determined to be in the direction necessary to move towards the goal. The movement toward a goal, leading, necessarily has a dynamic form, because the one that leads to the 585

130 goal has to be at the forefront of such change. Todays turbulent environment changes are synonymous with the necessity of increasing the influence of leadership in management. Theoretical considerations Human resource management is positioned in the area of leadership and guidance of people in the organization, and is based on key categories of organizational behavior, such as motivation, relations of individuals and groups, organizational socialization, organizational culture. For the effective management of these resources is necessary, certain theoretical knowledge as well as specific methods, processes and procedures to use human potential, respectively, in order to direct its development. The use and development of human resources should be directed towards the realization of the final goals of the organization, ie. its development and policy. Human resource is an entity that is always at the beginning and end of each story, because he certainly has the most long-term consequences for an organization. It is therefore very important, almost essential, choosing the right staff to devote sufficient time and quality. It is very important to the selection process to devote enough attention though, as dr. Isak Adizes says: "The choice of the people depends on the people themselves, it will never be perfect." Management revolution is the surface of the business world ejected managers that need to have the power supported by knowledge, abilities and personal traits. The process of copying new multidisciplinary management knowledge and skills is a dynamic process that ensures autonomous development of any organization. Managers as representatives of management and the company must be able to (or able) to sovereign authority and personality changes and manage processes. The changes have become so complex and dynamic that from their knowledge and skills and their effects in the economy and society depends largely on the fate of the world order. Today, the idea that they need to survive on the sports market. The leader is the one who sells the idea. Today, new concepts are needed to make the organization stronger and closer to connect with consumers. Manager's job is to preserve the concept and set in its own terms "push out" the maximum efficiency, the current leader crashes and offers new concepts, and often unexamined, concepts and ideas. Today is needed organizational model that can cope with all these changes. It is a high performance organization, with leaders throughout its structure to reflect the winning and attacks from the environment translate into opportunities and long-term growth and development of the sports market. Problem, the object and purpose The goal of human resource management is to create a scientific assumptions, methods, and procedures in implementation and compliance induvidualnih and organizational goals. Human Resource Management, in the age in which we live, will represent the imperative of survival of an organization. Today, a large number of people, if there is enough money, he could buy the technology and begin production, but a competitive advantage over the rest of the organization and the long-term survival in the market, you will realize that if he had only qualified people, able to quickly, easily and effectively solve problems. One of the most important factors of successful business are certainly human resources, that is, high-quality and professional staff. This fact, of course, implies the need for constant improvement of the overall system of knowledge. This improvement is reflected in the implementation of internal and ekstrenih staff training, professional development, funding for further education or employment information in the field of the profession, providing a presence at seminars in the field of sport management. This encourages employees to follow the innovations in the field, as well as the changes and developments in the same, which has a positive impact on the quality of the work. In order to achieve certain goals in the organization, management of human resources has to meet certain requirements, which will improve the work of the employees and hence their greater productivity organizaciji.3 through to fulfillment and satisfaction of the basic and most valuable resource in the company, we get fulfillment of objectives pursued. If the management of human resources is not able to manage the human resources that may affect the business and profit in the worst case, the survival of the organization. 586

131 The main objective of human resource management is to achieve the following objectives: - Functional purpose - HRM function is to contribute to the organization as long as it takes to achieve their goals and realize organizational strategy. This would mean that resources should be the most rational and effective to use in the pursuit of organizational goals. - The organizational goal - as we have already pointed out, the most important factor for the organization's human resource, therefore we need to improve efficiency and to motivate employees in a better way and thus we meet the goals of the organization. - The social goal - in everyday human relations social norms and values are very important in achieving good communication. Be ethically and socially responsible to the needs and challenges of society and minimize the negative impacts of these requirements on the business of the organization is also one of the important goals, not only for human resource management, but management as a whole. - Personal goal - the satisfaction of employees is the most important for any organization, but not enough to meet the employment only in a business sense, it is necessary to assist them in achieving their personal goals. Only in this way can be to gain their trust, and the staff will be happy and motivated to progress and personal contribution to the organization. When we think about motivation and reward systems set up one common question: if everything is unique and specifically is there anything that is similar? Can we take that as a starting point, as a benchmark against which we set a model? The answers to these questions are, fortunately check. Leadership style is the manner in which the relations between leaders and staff, and the way in which the leader directs the behavior of their subordinates and the means used to win them over or compel desired behavior. The basic criteria which distinguish styles are: access to leaders motivate subordinates - coercion or encouragement, the way in which a leader makes decisions, the sources of power that is used to make an impact on the child, the ability of leaders to adapt their behavior to different situations. Based on these criteria distinguished: classical and contemporary styles of leadership styles. Pioneering studies on leadership and Iowa are the Hawthorne Studies. These studies have examined the impact of three leadership styles on the behavior and performance, including: autocratic, democratic and liberal. Ohio studies are the first interdisciplinary study of leadership based on team work of psychologists, sociologists and economists. At the conclusion of these studies is based on the concept of "network management." The network has two dimensions: concern for people and concern for production. With the advancement in the horizontal axis, which is presented for the production of care, leaders have shown that they are task-oriented, while progress on the vertical axis, which is represented by concern for the people, the leaders have to show a greater concern for humanity. The manager has proved in practice to be a good way to test leaders, because they show that employee satisfaction is as important as the productivity achieved. Hypothetical tasks Based on the subject, objectives and tasks of research, the use of appropriate literature defines the following hypothetical tasks: H1 - There were statistically significant differences between the socio-psychological factors on H2 - There is a statistically significant difference between emotional competence of female athletes H3 - Upon achievement motive was no statistically significant difference among female athletes H4 - Willingness to further athlete training after the end of his career 587

132 Method When it comes to people, we know that there is a core of common human traits to the more liberal interpretation can be called "human nature." If we violate the essence of human nature by making models and systems that rely on artificial rather than natural human needs, we will not be able to manage successfully in the long run, because sooner or later, however conscious or unconscious "rebellion" inside - from the very essence our nature. Human values and the meaning of human life associated with that kernel. Also, the latest findings in the field of human values, the development of consciousness and functioning of the human brain are providing us with valuable insights and tools that can penetrate into the most important drivers of human activities and to use them in a positive way. Thanks to that we can say with a lot of great confidence to analyze the specific requirements of jobs and the characteristics of individuals who work in the industry. Four surveys included: 1) Survey, which is labeled A is: Emotional competence in establishing relationships with other people 2) The survey is labeled P is: The achievement motive 3) The survey, entitled UP: Scale testing of the general attitude towards changes 4) A survey labeled ED is: Scale of attitudes of practice education Results and discussion The key factor in business success of any organization is motivated, competent and flexible staff who are satisfied with the direction in which the business activities are carried out, the business culture in the organization and management. The number (n) and percentage (%), the representation of women in emotional competence in establishing relationships with other people Table 1. Numerical (n) and percentual (%) representation in achievement motivation not competent moderately competent competent n % without motive motives moderate motivated n % Conclusion The process of copying new multidisciplinary management knowledge and skills is a dynamic process that ensures autonomous development of each individual. Leadership is important not only for our personal careers and the organizations in which we work but because of the further progress of society, and further development of the sport. We need leaders who will unite us with their energy on the path of progress of human society. The changes have become so complex and dynamic that from their knowledge and skills and their effects in the economy and society depends largely on the fate of the world order. Human resource is an entity that is always at the beginning and end of each story, because he certainly has the most long-term consequences for an organization. It is therefore very important, almost essential, choosing the right staff to devote sufficient time and quality. The latest findings in the field of human 588

133 values, the development of consciousness and functioning of the human brain are providing us with valuable insights and tools that can penetrate into the most important drivers of human activities and to use them in a positive way. People are different to each other, and their type of personality and character should be regarded as a constant. Leadership is not a reason to want to change people, on the contrary, these differences are the benefits for them, no flaws. The leader is the one who builds climate in the team on the strengths, weaknesses, and not the people. He will thus koristititi talents of people in full, especially the ones he does. More actual concept of teamwork that dramatically increases the productivity of an organization by achieving a synergetic effect and integrating knowledge of all individuals engaged in timu.ali successful teamwork is feasible only in those organizations in which the government is democratic climate, respect for diversity, respect, solidarity, flexibility, a represented the delegation of responsibilities and competencies of employees. The stated performance is heavily dependent on management style, and although of employees and their ability to cooperate and functioning of the team. The golden rule of leadership is that a leader should treat people the way they want to be treated and it is this concept fully respected. Thanks to that we can say with great certainty that a lot of specific requirements and analyze the characteristics of individuals who work in the industry. It should be in as great a number of women in sport RS educate, encourage and motivate to work. References 1. Acin-Suglinski, S. (1993). Education for Action Manager. Economic Review, Ackermmann, K.F. (1989). Strategischer Personal menagment auf dem Prufstand. Personal management im Wandel. Stuttgart: Poeschel. 3. Adizes, I., (1994). Managing Change. Belgrade: Agora. 4. Arnold, E., (1989). Managing Human Resources, London. 5. Djindjic, Z., (2004). A Serbian Vision., Belgrade: Athenaeum. 6. Drucker, P. F., (2001). Management Challenges for the 21st Century. USA: Business. 7. Drucker, P. F., (2002). The Effective Executive Revised. USA: Business. 589

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135 THE STRATEGIC SPORTS EVENT PLANNING: A CASE STUDY OF THE UEFA EUROPEAN UNDER-17 FOOTBALL CHAMPIONSHIP Milka ðukić 1, Lidija Petrović 2, Milorad ðukić 3, Siniša Zarić 4 and Veselin Bunčić 5 1 Graduate School of Management in Sport, Alfa University, Belgrade, Serbia 2 European Center for Peace and Development (ECPD), United Nations University for Peace, University of Belgrade, Serbia 3 Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia 4 ECPD, UN University for Peace and Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade, Serbia 5 Preschool Teacher and Sport Trainer High School, Subotica, Serbia Abstract The paper introduces a relatively new way of planning the sports events, the strategic approach, as an innovative and in-depth process of planning the sports events in order for the predefined events objectives to be successfully achieved. According to the authors, the strategic sports event planning is viewed as an effective extension of the traditional theories and models suggesting a more comprehensive, staged process that can enable the event to provide benefits in both longer and shorter term. As such, the staged strategic sports event planning process encompasses both short-term requirements for the implementation of the event and the long-term legacies the sports event can leave behind. The authors, then, present an application of the staged process using the UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship as an example of planning the international football event to be hosted by Serbia in May 2011, which was nominated a prestigious candidature to host the European Championship Final tournament. The paper concludes that the new approach has a great potential for broader applications on sports events of all scales, underlying importance of the strategic planning of, especially, major international sports events and influence they have in economic, social and cultural sense. Keywords: event management, sports events, strategic planning, UEFA european u-17 football championship Introduction Sports event management integrates the principles of management and marketing to the sports industry. Sport management and also event management are both areas that are growing in stature and scope, can overlap in their content, and provide understandings to event practitioners on how the sports events can be best planned to meet the needs of the 21 st century. Both discipline areas are focusing on strategic rather than reactive management of the event and also looking at alternative and innovative solutions to longstanding problems. Today, the environment in which sport organizations exist and operate has also altered; therefore, management of contemporary sports events involves application of techniques and strategies that are also used in commercial business as well as in government and not-for-profit organizations. Sport event management must employ strategic planning, manage human resources and deal with a range of different stakeholders. Previous research has suggested that the use of the event objectives is necessary for the production of a successful event (Allen et al., 2002; Getz, 1997; Goldblatt, 2002; Shone & Parry, 2001). The argument in favor of use of the event objectives is that they provide the direction for planning and execution (Masterman, 2004). Allen et al. (2002) underline that objectives are required before any situational analysis, while Getz (1997) proposes that scanning the internal and external environments is necessary prior to setting the vision and goals for the event. Damster et al. (2006) emphasized that systems approach to event planning outlined by Getz (1997) envisaged a continual process of review and 591

136 monitoring the plan and event itself during and after its implementation adding that it can be adopted to include the participation of communities emphasizing the role and responsibility of local authorities in an integrated event planning process, especially applicable in developing countries. Several of the theories also consider wind-up or shutdown (Allen et al., 2002; Catherwood & Van Kirk, 1992; Getz, 1997; Shone & Parry, 2001). Theories of Catherwood & Van Kirk (1992) and Goldblatt (1997) propose a less formal approach to event planning, although in the theories of Getz (1997), Allen et al. (2002), Shone & Parry (2001) and Torkildsen (1999) the event planning is a staged process. The focus of the research in this paper is on analysis of the theoretical aspects and application of a new event planning process model to an example of planning of the UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship Final tournament to be hosted by Serbia in May Research Design Method The strategic planning is carried out using as a framework for the analysis the new staged event planning process model which particularly addresses the long-term legacy needs for the strategic planning of international sports events. Among the initiatives involved, the UEFA Under-17 Football Championship Final tournament is an international sports event that has all the characteristics of a major event (special event that is high in status and prestige, which attracts a large crowd and wide media attention, has a tradition and incorporates other types of events, is expensive to stage, attracts funds to the host region, lad to demand for associated services, and leave behind legacies). The sports event management planning process which consists of up to ten different stages is illustrated in Figure1. Source: Masterman (2004) Fig. 1. The strategic event planning process Staged model 592

137 In the first stage, it is important for all stakeholders to be identified and their requirements considered that they can be incorporated into the planning of the event. This include considering of potential partners and the basic five questions that should be asked: (1) WHY is the Event to be held? (2) WHEN will the Event be held? (3) WHERE is the Event to be staged? (4) WHO is to benefit and how? (5) WHAT is to be achieved? The UEFA European U-17 Football Championship is an annual competition staged by the UEFA. Starting from its establishment in 2001, the host countries have been Switzerland, Portugal, France, Turkey, Russia, Spain (for the two times repeatedly), Germany and England (UEFA Regulations, 2010). The Championship represents the highest rank of competition for this age. It counts as a preliminary competition for the FIFA U-17 World Cup when the final round takes place in an uneven year; therefore, the first placed 6 teams are eligible to participate directly in the upcoming FIFA U-17 World Cup. The Football Association of Serbia (FAS) has been nominated by the UEFA Executive Committee as a host association for the Final tournament of the 10th UEFA European U-17 Football Championship which is held in the four cities in period from 1 st - 16 th of May As a general rule, the final round is played as a tournament. Eight teams take part in the final round. The seven group winners of the elite round qualify. The host country qualifies automatically (UEFA Regulations, 2010). As the UEFA Executive Committee has entrusted Serbia with the organization of the final tournament, therefore, a host association of the final round, Football Association of Serbia is privileged to qualify automatically for the final round. Objectives which have to be achieved. Competitive: placement into the final round of the Championship from the group phase to the semifinal, taking one of four positions (out of 53 teams from the qualifications, and 8 in the final round) would be the biggest success of our national U-17 football team and placement to the 2011 World Cup Mexico. Sociological: a means of social intervention on the vulnerable youth population, animation of the youth to actively participate in sports, especially in football, and general popularization of football. Cultural: regarding the fact that the matches of the European Championship will be broadcast throughout the world, the international character of this competition contributes to a more significant promotion of the state itself, its host cities, and institutions involved in the organization of this sports event. Key stakeholders. In the organization of the UEFA European U-17 Football Championship Final tournament apart from the football stakeholders UEFA, FIFA and FAS, will participate the following institutions: Ministry of Youth and Sports, City of Belgrade Secretariat of Youth and Sports, as well as Secretariat of Sports and Youth of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. Development of the event concept. Having determined the objectives, the concept for the event can be designed. As a rule, consideration should give meaningful answers to the explanations about the scale of the event, purposes, significance, necessary time for planning and implementation, locations and venues, the facilities and equipment required and already available, should be incorporated into development of the concept of the sports event. Purpose and significance of the event: FAS as the host of the Final tournament of the UEFA European U-17 Championship will not have any financial benefits that could be treated as a profit. The primary purpose of hosting this major football event can only be found in cultural concerns and affirmative benefits for all social instances involved in the promotion of Serbia at the international level, in promotion of football in Serbia and in the initiation of youth involvement in football and sports in general. Accordingly, the fact that all investments in infrastructure set up by the UEFA standards for 593

138 organizing such a level of competition should not be ignored, will remain both benefit and long-term legacy for future sports events in Serbia. Time: From 1 st to 16 th of May 2011 Location: Host cities (Belgrade, Novi Sad, Indjija, Smederevo) Event program: The quality of the event program is additionally influenced by the sport services representing an extended offer to spectators (such as comfortable accommodation, available information, security issues, merchandizing, advertizing materials) and related to the parameters of accessibility, reliability, sensitivity, tangibility and safety. Feasibility stage. This stage focuses on the financial aspects pertinent to the strategic planning of sports events, such as the acquisition of funding and the control of expenditure with an emphasis on the need for the financial risk management. The event budget serves as a valuable tool in the measurement of performance of individuals as well as the organization as a whole. According to Masterman (2004), the content of an event budget consists of: revenue targets and expenditure targets. Designated funds from the budget of the City of Belgrade (the Secretariat of Youth and Sport) are used to co-finance renting of the sports facilities necessary for the maintenance of all preparatory activities and matches of the Final tournament. Designated funds of the Secretariat of Sports and Youth of Vojvodina have been a precondition for this very important preparatory activity. The Semi-final and final match of the European Championship will be played in the cities of Vojvodina - Novi Sad (the Karadjordje Stadium) and Indjija (the Indjija Stadium). According to the UEFA conditions necessary for maintaining this level of competition, additional work and reconstruction of this two stadiums is obligated covering 200 seats in the stadium of FC Indjija, adaptation of toilets, adaptation of parking for more vehicles than the existing number, VIP sectors, power generators, a signage plan, internal and external decoration of the stadium, creating the optimal conditions for the TV broadcasts which will be implemented by Eurosport, etc.) The key investor and partners from both public and private sectors have been identified to be helpful to financial planning and organization of the Final tournament. Holding of such an event could not be possible without support of the UEFA, the football authority responsible for the football game at the European level and the national football association. In accordance with the plan of organization of the European Championship, the following institutions will also actively participate: Ministry of Youth and Sports, Secretariat of Sports and Youth of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, as well as Secretariat of Sport and Youth of the City of Belgrade, together with the football stakeholders - UEFA and FAS. Event implementation. At this stage, the short-term requirements of the event are considered and the operational strategies are determined: human resources, partnerships, suppliers, facilities, equipment, services, sales and marketing. Successful sports events require an effective project management approach (Masterman, 2004). Staging a sports event consists of planning, setting up the organizational structure and developing the work breakdown structures and methods to achieve the predefined objectives. Several concepts in staging and implementation of the Final tournament are integrated within the program of the event, namely: Accommodation/ Offices/ Boardrooms/ Catering; Accreditation; Ceremonies/ Youth Programs; Hospitality and Protocol; Match filming; Match organization; Media matters and communication with sub-group Media accreditations; Medical matters; Promotion/ Press releases/ Press launches; Safety and Security; Human resources and Volunteers; Natural and Artificial turf football pitches; Logistics, Transport and Parking lots; and Ticketing. Sports event marketing: The sports event as a product include the event as a whole and also all the various components that it can consist of. These include goods, services, information and media, places, people and also ideas (Pitts & Stotlar, 2002). The determination of the marketing mix for an event involves creating a product that satisfies customers needs, at an acceptable price, in appropriate places so that it can be promoted in such a way that the whole offering becomes known, attractive and bought by target customers (Masterman, 2004). Events are services and are therefore subject to the consideration of a separate service sector marketing mix. There is an extended approach to the marketing mix, according 594

139 to Getz (1997) that becomes visible in staging and organizing major sports events such as the UEFA European U-17 Football Championship, where beside the four basic instruments the 4Ps, people have been incorporated as a key resource in the event organization, programming, partnership and relations with intermediaries suppliers. Event evaluation. The evaluation process may be at the back end of the planning process, but it is not just a post-event evaluation. The three phases encompass the planning process as a whole. These are pre-event research, iterative evaluation and post-event evaluation. The most significant form of evaluation from the perspective of a sports event host is impact analysis as a determination of an event s economic contribution to its host city, region and/or nation. In order to make possible the cost-benefit analysis, it is necessary to provide a quantitative and qualitative assessment of the impacts associated with the Final tournament: Immediate impacts and pre-tournament: Reconstruction and preparing of the stadiums in accordance with the UEFA requirements; Associated environmental and infrastructure improvements; Associated regeneration activity (including inward investment and employment); Training of volunteers; Pre-tournament operational employment; Marketing and promotional campaigns; Enhanced partnership working in order to deliver facilities and infrastructure. Intermediate impacts during the Tournament: Operating the tournament; Opening and closing ceremonies; Tournament related events and cultural activities; Visitor spend; Marketing, promotion, media coverage and exposure; Volunteer activity. Strategic impacts post-tournament: Enhanced national and international image; Popularization of football; Social benefits such as health benefits brought about through the improved participation in sport, a personal pride and well-being from seeking a job or being a tournament volunteer; Spin-off benefits for the wider region: enhanced profile and image of the host cities of tournament, growth in target sectors of the economy, increased education and skill levels; Increased inward and retained investment. Results and Discussion In this paper, special attention is paid to the process of planning an event and its importance for the organizers. The main aim of the paper was to emphasize importance of the strategic planning process of, especially, major international sports event, potential influence which it has in economic and sociocultural sense, as well as what legacy and values it can leave behind. Within the theoretical discussion, the paper introduced an innovative methodology to the field of sports event management, illustrated, in the applied part of the paper, by a case study on the European U-17 Football Championship. The example was chosen due to the fact that Serbia was nominated a prestigious candidature to host the Final tournament of the European Championship in youth football. The staged model of the strategic event planning replaced the more traditional approaches analyzed in the previous theory and event management literature. The strategic staged model represents a more comprehensive process which encompasses the need for the inclusion of specific long-term strategies when planning a major international sports event and strategies that will extend beyond the end of the event itself. The clear advantage is that the staged model is applicable to the strategic planning process required for all scales of sports events. Although the boundaries between each stage are frequently less then clear in the management practice, the staged model is important so that progression can be made without unnecessary action being taken too early as Masterman (2004) emphasized. The predefined event s objectives set out following the SMART principle (Specific, Measureable, Achievable, Realistic, and Timely) must be combined with the application of a range of performance indicators (budget targets, deadlines for contracts to be achieved, etc.) in evaluation of all stages of the strategic planning process. It is important to underline that the need for introducing a strategic approach is more evident particularly because it may be usefully applied not in the sports event management only, but in the whole events industry. The attractiveness and prestige of such an event, which are now bound up with the four host cities, have positive effects on the image of Serbia as a destination of growing cultural value. It also stimulated new investments which can repeat and improve the event, as well as produce initiatives of requalification of Serbia at various levels (infrastructures, services, urban renewal, etc.) Since the Final tournament of the UEFA European U-17 Football Championship do not have any interest in achieving 595

140 material and financial benefits from the organization of competition, the intention is to for all sports, social, cultural and benefits of promoting the state in general to be pointed out (especially the host cities) as the main triggers for hosting this important event. On the other hand, all investments in infrastructure identified as a prerequisite, represent a significant investment in the upcoming sports events planning in Serbia. References 1. Allen, J., O Toole, W., McDonneu, I., & Harris, R. (2002). Festival and Special Event Management (2nd ed.). Queensland, Australia: John Wiley & Sons. 2. Catherwood, D. & Van Kirk, R. (1992). The Complete Guide to Special Event Management: 3. Business Insights, Financial Strategies from Ernst & Young, Advisors to the Olympics, the Emmy Awards and the PGA Tour. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 4. Damster, G., Tassiopoulos, D., de Tolly, P., Dry, W., Gashe, J.,... Knocker, J. (2006). Event Management: A Professional and Developmental Approach. Paul & Co Pub Consortium. 5. FAS (2011). (accessed March/ April 2011). 6. Getz, D. (1997). Event Management and Event Tourism, New York: Cognizant. 7. Goldblatt, J. (2002). Special Events: Twenty-first Century Global Event Management (3 rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. 8. Masterman, G. (2004). Strategic Sport Event Management: An International Approach, Oxford: Elsevier. 9. Pitts, G. & Stotlar, D. (2002). Fundamentals of Sport Marketing. (2nd ed.). Morgantown: Fitness Information Technology. 10. Shone, A. & Parry, B. (2001). Successful Event Management: A Guide to Professional Practice, pp Sydney: Allen & Unwin. 11. Torkildsen, G. (1999). Leisure and Recreation Management, London: E. & F. N. Spon. 12. UEFA (2010). Regulations of the UEFA European Under-17 Championship, Season 2010/11. Nyon: Swirzerland. 596

141 PREFERENCES FOR TRADITIONAL OR PARTICIPATORY APPROACH TO WORK MOTIVATION IN STUDENTS Nebojša Maksimović, Radenko Matić, Zoran Milošević, Borislav Obradović and Damjan Jakšić Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Abstract Introduction: The function of leadership is strongly influenced by the personal philosophy or the general attitude of the people and motives that encourage people to best effort. The main problem: The problem of this research were student's attitudes towards people and motives, and their belief in the value of traditional and participatory approach to motivation. Subjects: The study included students of 4th year of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education in Novi Sad (N=148). Procedure: The general attitude toward people and motives estimated using Mc Gregor questionnaire X and Y theory of leadership. Results: Statistical analysis revealed that nearly four time more students favor to traditional approach to leadership - Theory X (79.1%), compared to a participatory approach - Theory Y (20.9%). Conclusions and implications: This student beliefs about human nature, suggest and assume their frequent preference to traditional approach in future work with students or other users of physical activity through some of the managerial functions in the practice of physical education and sport. Keywords: function of executive, leadership, x and y theory. Introduction Abstract functions of planning and organization remain, without people and their relationships, intangible and immobile creations. They become living through the power of communication, motivation and leadership. Through these powers of management functions, managers activate energies and talents of their organization. For such an activating function managers need great abilities for establishing relationships between people. Some managers have innate interpersonal skills, while most acquire them by learning, observing and developing them through experience and application. Leadership is a topic that is universally applicable and is often represented in numerous academic researches (Antoakis, Ciancolo & Sternberg, 2004; Gardner, 1990; Mumford, 2006). Physical education teachers, coaches and sports officials at various levels in the organization are fulfilling their managerial role in working with children in elementary or high schools, sportsmen, recreational sportsmen or in the management of sports facilities, clubs, etc. In their work environment they are required to implement various plans: the school curriculum, the implementation of macro and micro training cycles in sports all the way to the strategic plans of sports organizations development. Leadership according to Maksimović and Raič (2012) is managerial function that initiates the organization, puts it into operation, gives energy to it. This function has three interdependent components that managers are required to carry out in corresponding proportions: 1) Communication - messages, management directives, individually or collectively, which give the signal to the organization to activate. Communications may be oral, written and gestural (by movements). Messages to other members of the organization may contain information and ideas, instructions, orders and commands. The purpose of these messages is guidance which make people know what to do, how and when, where and how to act. 2) Motivation people who execute various works in the organization act by orders of management mainly to satisfy their own needs. These needs can be different: making money, providing security, creating friendships and respect, checking the success on the work. Managers need to find out which of these needs motivate employees and how work assigned to individuals can satisfy them, 3) Leading/leadership - personal ability of manager to establish non-forced power over others in the organization. This power is 597

142 partly a result of the formal position and authority of managers but mainly stems from their ability to persuade, influence and winning. Successful managers need to be able to 1) anticipate dangers and opportunities the group is faced with, 2) identify and apply insight about what influences the group and makes it follow the leader's sense for right directions of activities. The function of leadership is strongly influenced by the personal philosophy or the general attitude towards people and motives that encourage people to do their best. Historically, managers have passed through three stages in this regard: 1) The traditional view - that money incentive stimulates the highest work initiative. This view is explained by Frederick Taylor at the beginning of the 20th century. This view has neglected other motivational factors, such as the need for security of employment and employees desire to be respected and to gain recognition. 2) Fairness - a concept in which employees perform their work better if the superiors give them appropriate treatment and not just financial compensation for their work. This approach to motivation also has drawbacks (it mitigates the authority of the manager). 3) The share of the responsibility (participatory approach) - a concept which refers to people as valuable resources that can make a major contribution to the planning of the ways in which they can perform their tasks. By participating in making managerial decisions, employees perceive their work as meaningful and purposeful and bring more effort and thinking into work which goals are partly chosen by themselves. In contemporary conditions this approach to motivation is consistent with the general climate of emancipation, interaction and learning created by information civilization. In accordance with all of the above, for this research problem we used a model that is used in management for investigating managers tendencies towards traditional or participatory approach to work motivation, or in some way diverse role of the future sports officials and their required leadership skills to better fulfill the tasks became associated with the approach to manager as one who manages children, professional sportsmen, recreational sportsmen or facilities and plans. The aim of the research is to determine the tendencies of future teachers of physical education towards traditional or participatory approach, i.e. rigid or flexible approach in their future employment. Method According to the survey of McGregor, some managers choose the way of leading people by relying on their belief in the value of either traditional or participatory approach to motivation. The traditional approach has been labeled as Theory X and the participatory approach as Theory Y. If theory X prevails in the personal philosophy of management, it means that such a manager approach to people 1) as people who hate to work, 2) as people in need of strict control, 3) as they avoid taking responsibility during the work, 4) give priority to job security and financial benefits. If theory Y prevails, such a manager approach to people 1) as persons who accept work as normal, fruitful human condition, 2) they are able to monitor their activity by themselves, 3) they tend and try to learn, 4) are able to solve problems in their work, 5) are not only motivated by money and employment security but primarily by need for self-esteem and personal development. (Figure 1) 598

143 Figure 1. Theory X and Y Diagram The respondents sample included 148 students of IV year at the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad. Based on McGregor s questionnaire tendency towards traditional or participatory approach to work motivation was determined. The end result on the scale of numbers from 15-60, if it was in the range of implied the respondents orientation and closeness to the assumptions of the Theory Y, while result in the range of implied orientation and closeness to the assumptions of the Theory X. (The final result was calculated as follows: 1 x sum from column (I strongly disagree), 2 x sum of the column (I disagree), 3 x sum of the column (I agree), 4 x the sum of the column (I strongly agree). In addition to descriptive statistics, data processing included Chi square (χ2) test. Results The results of all analyzed variables shown in Table 1, are grouped based on different approaches of managers to people, in relation with how their attitude towards work, motivation, accountability, supervision and creativity in business is observed. If we look at the results of the different groups of respondents dedicated to X or Y theory in Table 1, we can see that the observed groups did not differ in only one variable in the segments that are related to work and creativity. In terms of performance, both groups almost identically considered that almost everyone can improve their performance if they really tried, and among them there were no statistically significant differences, which shows that for this item both groups of respondents were closer to the theory X. Over 90% of the entire sample of respondents agreed that people can improve their working potential, or the manager or leader should find a way to motivate and encourage them to improve and use their hidden capacities. This trend is observable also for the other variables in the group of questions related to defining of labor standards and human nature. The same can be stated for the attitude towards motivation, where in the range of 70-90% of the responses is stated that the respondents, followers of both theories, are close to point of view that when thinking about the greater responsibility and status or recognition at work, actually everyone think about the money. 599

144 As for creativity at work, the opinions in the both groups are fairly divided, with 40% of Theory X and 35% of Theory Y followers agree that human resources do not express their creativity enough, while even bigger percents, with 60% of Theory X and 65% of Theory Y followers, agree that human resources can further exploit their creative potential. It can be noted that most of the respondents in this variable was closer to Theory Y. Over 70% of respondents who are prone to Theory X, and over 90% of Theory Y, do not believe that strictness brings effectiveness in performing the task. In support of this finding is the result that less than 50% of all respondents believe that the expected results are more important than the method which is used in dealing with people. In other variables that relate to the supervision of the fulfillment of work standards, statistically significant differences were observed. Table 1. Hi square test between respondents of X and Y theory Items (1) I strongly disagree (%) (2) I disagree (%) (3) I agree (%) (4) I strongly agree (%) χ2 Work Theory Almost all the workers would be able to greatly improve their performance, if they really try. It is not realistic to expect people to show the same enthusiasm for their work and for their leisure activities. Even when the supervisor is encouraging, very few people are showing a desire to improve on the workplace. Supervisor who expects people to set their own standards for the operation very soon will make sure that people do not set them high enough. It's in human nature to do as little as they can to get away with it. X Y X Y X Y X Y X Y 0 0 1,7 3,3 6,9 3,2 0 6,5 1,7 16,1 3,4 3,2 7,7 30,0 39,3 67,7 12,8 29,0 9,4 35,5 56,4 74,2 58,1 50,0 54,7 25,8 71,8 58,1 57,3 35,5 40,2 22,6 32,5 16,7 5,1 3,2 15,4 6,5 31,6 12,9 3,37 12,33** 9,78* 13,63** 27,29** Motivation If you give people enough money, the less they will take care of some intangibles such as status or recognition. When people talk and say they would like a more responsible job, they usually think of more money and a better status. X Y X Y 0 6,5 0 3,2 13,8 22,6 3,4 16,1 71,6 64,5 56,4 61,3 14,7 6,5 40,2 19,4 10,13** 13,35** Responsibility Because most people do not like to make decisions, it is difficult to force them to take responsibility. X Y 0 10,0 16,2 43,3 65,0 46,7 18,8 0 26,69** Supervision If the people are treated strictly they will do anything they are asked to do. Supervisor loses prestige when he has to admit that the subordinate was right, and he was not. A good way to make people work harder is to periodically tighten them. The most successful supervisor is the one who achieves the expected results, regardless of the method that was used in their dealings with people. It is unrealistic to expect people to work well without a supervisor who constantly warns them. X Y X Y X Y X Y X Y 10,3 35,5 6,8 12,9 6,8 22,6 7,7 32,3 3, ,5 58,1 21,4 58,1 21,4 67,7 47,0 48,4 36,8 48,4 19,7 6,5 66,7 29,0 66,7 9,7 35,9 16,1 45,3 32,3 8,5 0 5,1 0 5,1 0 9,4 3,2 15,26** 10,14** 19,96** 15,69** 14,5 0 15,54** Creativity If people do not use imagination and intuition enough in the workplace, it is because only few people possess these qualities. One of the problems that arises when you ask a subordinate for an idea is that their views are so limited that their ideas will have no practical value. X Y X Y 8,5 9,7 12,0 35,5 50,4 54,8 49,6 51,6 36,8 29,0 34,2 12,9 4,3 6,5 4,3 0 0,79 13,10** Theory X=79,1 % of total number of respondents Theory Y=20,9 % of total number of respondents 600

145 Discussion By reviewing the literature that deals with issues of work motivation it can be concluded that Theories X and Y are not managerial strategy per se, but rather a set of assumptions that managers have about human nature and adversely influence the generation of their management style. Managers beliefs about the nature of people (tendency towards theory X or theory Y), as a consequence, influence their behavior which in practice causes corresponding behavior of people managed by such managers. Under the leadership of manager who believes in the validity of the theory X, the majority of employees under his command begin to act accordingly to this philosophy of their superior. The same goes for application of the managerial philosophy described by theory Y. Such effect of the managerial philosophy is referred to as self-fulfilling prophecy. To some extent the theory X outlook is a self-fulfilling prophecy because, when people are treated as if they weren't responsible, they are likely to behave as expected, not caring about their work. This is also true of the theory Y style. People given responsibility and trusted are likely to work harder to prove that they are indeed responsible (McCrimmon, 2006). Based on the obtained results about followers of these two theories, with Theory X = 79.1% of total number of respondents and Theory Y = 20.9% of total number of respondents, the following research question is imposed. Why the students in their future work would be more prone to Theory X or why they believe that this approach provides advantages? It may be noted that the tendency of such a large number of students towards the theory X, can be understood as the effect of a large number of wellknown coaches, physical education teachers and other sports officials who exercise their tasks by applying strict disciplined mode, which recognizes only success and defined plans and results. However, Milošević, Maksimović, Matić and Bjelica (2011) point out that one should not forget the basic mission of physical education, the natural connection between physical exercise and health, impaired during the instrumentalisation of, above all, sport achievements, and that it is necessary to bring it back not only through struggle against the excessive commercialization of sport or by affirmation of antidoping measures, but, through a humanistic, more comprehensive and wider model of physical education. Such a mission requires a participatory approach. Accordingly, comprehensive developing of proneness towards Theory Y in students as future sports officials should be pursued, because even McGregor himself points out that assumptions of the Theory Y contributed to the reduction of dissatisfaction at work and that it serves as a description of how efficient managers look at human nature and behavior. McGregor's explanation was that the manager had created conditions that enabled "the individual to achieve his (her) own goals (including those of self-actualization) best by directing his (her) efforts toward organizational goals" (McGregor, 1960). Subsequently, numerous, more intricate, psychological and social- psychological mechanisms have been invoked to explain this phenomenon (e.g., Bandura and Locke, 2003; Eden, 1990; Heil, Bennis and Stephens, 2000). Goldsmith (2009) quotes several reasons why has it become fashionable to have a leadership group in sporting teams: 1) Society has changed, 2) Players have to solve problems and make decisions on the field that determine the outcome of the game. Coaches can coach off-field and at training, but have limited impact on the field in the heat of battle. Better problem-solving and decision-making occurs when people own their performance and are responsible for the outcome. 3) Players are smarter One impact of the internet and the improved electronic literacy of players is that they have access to ideas, techniques and skills that once were hidden away in coaching education texts. Professional players are comfortable using video analysis to evaluate their performances. Players have views and opinions about their performances that can add real value to their coaching program. 4) We understand leadership more. Participative leadership involves consulting with subordinates and the evaluation of their opinions and suggestions before the manager makes the decision (Mullins, 2005). Participative leadership is associated with consensus, consultation, delegation, and involvement (Bass 1981). Results revealed that employees who perceive their managers as adopting consultative or participative leadership behavior are more committed to their organizations, more satisfied with their jobs and higher in their performance. (Yousef, 2000). Generally, Drucker s (2002) response eliminates this threat: Employees may be our greatest liability, but people are our greatest opportunity. 601

146 Like most leadership style theories, this one is a little simplistic. The truth is that there are both types of people in the world (motivated and unmotivated) and they should be managed differently. Still, people are more likely to rise to the challenge if you start by assuming them to be responsible. References 1. Antoakis, J., Ciancolo, A. T., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Leadership: Past, present, future. In: J. Antoanakic, A. T. Ciancolo, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The nature of leadership (pp. 3-16). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 2. Bandura, A., & Locke, E. A. (2003). Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(1), Bass, B. M. (1981). Personal selling and transactional/ transformational leadership. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 17(3), Drucker, P. F. (2002). They re not employees, they re people. Harvard Business Review, 80(2), Eden, D. (1990). Pygmalion in management: Productivity as a self-fulfilling prophecy. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. 6. Gardner, J. W. (1990). On leadership. New York: Free Press. 7. Goldsmith, W. (2009). Key elements for leadership teams, Sports coach, 30,(3). 8. Heil, G., Bennis, W. and Stephens, D. C. (2000). Douglas McGregor, Revisited: Managing the Human Side of the Enterprise. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. 9. Maksimović, N. i Raič, A. (2012). Sportski menadžment. Novi Sad. Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 10. McCrimmon, M. (2006). Burn! 7 leadership yths in ashes. Toronto, Ontario: Self Renewal Group. 11. McGregor, D. (1960). The Human Side of Enterprise. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 12. Milošević, Z., Maksimović, N., Matić, R. i Bjelica, D. (2011). Zaboravljena misija fizičke kulture. Sport Mont, 31, 32, 33./IX, Mullins. L.J. (2005). Management and organizational behavior. 7th ed, Visit us on the World 14. Mumford, M.D. (2006). Pathways to outstanding leadership: A comparative analysis of charismatic, ideological, and pragmatic leaders. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 15. Yousef, D.A. (2000). Organizational commitment: a mediator of the relationships of leadership behavior with job satisfaction and performance in a non-western country. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15(1). 602

147 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF BETTING PHENOMENON: WHY IS ALWAYS JUST A SINGLE PAIR MISSING Ivan Budimir 1 and Igor Jelaska 2 1 Faculty of Graphic Technology, University of Zagreb, Croatia 2 Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Croatia Abstract Modern sociological and psychological studies are clearly pointing on the problems of increased usage of services provided by bookmaker s places. In that context, relations between the coefficients of the options and the likelihood of an event options are described. Phenomenon of frequent absence of a single pair is identified and assumptions are made in the context of the strategy "average good" bookmaker. By using the mechanisms of the probability theory, the betting process is formally described by binomial random variable and, the statistical explanation of the phenomenon of frequent absence of one pair at gambling is given exactly. The analysis clearly indicates that the occurrence of a missing couple is not a coincidence or an accident that players tend to interpret the circumstances described, but awaited event associated with the probability distribution. In accordance to given results, it is of great interest to integrate obtained results into the sociology of sport and psychology of sport educational processes. Keywords: betting, statistics, binomial distribution, sociology of sport, psychology of sport. Introduction Modern scientific analysis clearly point to the problem of betting and gambling as a plague of the modern era (Dickerson et al. 1996; Azmier, 2001; Orford et al., 2003; Abbott et al., 2004; Zoričić, 2007; Zoričić, Torre & Orešković, 2009). Specifically, in the present times is hard to find a person who has never ventured into a kind of game of chance. Department stores offer us and impose different kinds of lotteries, the television often displays various types of lottery, bingo and similar games with unplugging combinations of numbers. The casinos are offering various kinds of slot machines, from poker and roulette to the combination of automatic stacking fruit. Sociological, psychological and deeply integrated into the sport is phenomenon that the greatest interest for gaming is directed at the betting on results of sport events (Curry & Jiobu, 1984; Zarevski, 1990; Walker & Barnett, 2003; Abbott et al., 2004; Zoričić, Torre & Orešković, 2009) in which an offer exists for predicting the results of absolutely all sports - from football to horse racing. Sport events that are contained in the offers, are taking place in all parts of the world, from India to Japan and the USA. Accordingly, the aim of this paper is to give mathematical and statistical insight into the phenomenon of the frequent absence of a single pair when using betting options. Betting strategies of an average good bookmaker First of all, we would like to point out that a ticket is the winning one only if all the pairs have been hit, while a ticket is a non-winning one ( failed ) if the player has incorrectly predicted at least one pair. In doing so, the term an average good bookmarker (user of bookmaker s place service) implies a sports expert who daily reads sports reports, knows the principles of every coach and clubs whose results he predicts, is familiar with the form of each player, knows the club sponsors, and other valuable information. Furthermore, the average good bookmarker usually bets on a number of pairs he considers have a great chance in achieving his forecasts. In the simplified model, we will assume that our player bets on 7 different pairs. Let s suppose that he is a skilled player, and that he guesses the outcome of an event with a probability of 0.80 (80%), or makes a mistake in forecasting of a single pair with a probability of 0.20 (20%). 603

148 Figure 1. Ticket paid at the Super Sport bookmarker's place It is very likely that the bookmaker, in the previously specified or similar context, will complain either that he...almost always misses just one pair..., or he has bad luck. (Figure 1) Why is this so? The relationship between the option coefficient and the probabilities options In preparing daily offers, statisticians should first determine the probabilities of all the betting options. Using the estimated probabilities of the accidental offered option, they calculate the coefficient for the given option which they then put in the bookmarker's place offer. The estimates are made based on the past statistics, together with the other data that can be collected on the given issue. In this paper, we will not deal with the methods of probability theory and statistical methods, such as logistic regression and the other methods, by which the bookmarkers do the assess of the realization probability of some random options related to a particular sports event. Given that the bookmarker's places give daily coefficients, rather than the estimated probabilities, we will give the example of how, using the coefficients, we can calculate the probability of certain options. Therefore, for example, we will look at the offer for a match between Bayern M. - Schalke 04 (Table 1). Table 1. Super chance option Event Super chance Time p(1) p(x) p(2) number 56 Bayern M.-Schalke 04 Sunday, 15: The bookmaker's place offered winning coefficients on Bayern, 4.00 in the case of a tie, and 8.00 in the case of visiting team, Schalke 04. Events 1, X, and 2 form a complete system of events (Stroock, 2011), mutually exclusive, which is important when calculating the index. The index is then calculated as the sum of the reciprocals offered indices, which relate to the observed options. The bookmarker's place winning index in the case of this pair equals to: i d = = 1 This means that in the case of 1 paid monetary unit to players, the bookmarker s place earns 1 monetary unit, while in the case of the uniform payment of 1 monetary unit on the events 1, X or 2, bookmarker s place earns in proportions that follow the probabilities of the occurrence of given events. We may notice that we are talking about a fair option, unless we take in consideration handling charges, given that it is about an event that is a so-called Super-chance bookmarker s place. 604

149 Now we can calculate the probability of a certain event as: p ( 1) = = = = 62.5% coeff (1) i d p ( X ) = = = = 25.0% coeff (2) i d p ( 2) = = = = 12.5% coeff (3) i d As the events 1 (home win), X (draw), and 2 (visiting team victory) make a complete system of events; the sum of the probabilities must be 1 or 100%: p ( 1) + p( X ) + p(2) = = 1 = 100% Therefore, based on the available coefficients, we have calculated probabilities that statisticians attributed to each event, without going into the ways and statistical methods which they use to perform these assessments. Binomial random variable as a betting model Let's make a model of probability ticket that our player fulfills. As he usually bets on 7 events ( pairs ) with the probability of winning of 0.80 per a pair, it is a stochastic experiment that gets repeated 7 times, where all 7 events are independent. Namely, the outcome of a basketball game obviously does not dependent on the outcome of a hockey game or similarly. Every event has only two possible outcomes, either the player has hittted the outcome or he has missed it. Random variable which is marked by X, which gives the number of the hits on such a played ticket, is binomial (Stroock, 2011) with n=7 and p=0.8 parameters. Formally written it looks as following: X ~ B(7 ; 0.8). It is well-known that the probability distribution of this random variable is calculated by the formula n k n k P( x = k) = p (1 p), k where k in the formula stands for number of positive outcomes of the previously described random event, which is in our case, the number of guessed events on the played ticket. The expected value of a random variable X is E X = np = = 5. [ ] 6 According to this, 5 to 6 hits can be expected per a played ticket. If we calculate probability distribution of random variable X, we can see: P ( X = 0) = = P ( X P ( X 7 1 = 1) = = 2) = = =

150 P ( X P ( X P ( X P ( X P ( X 7 3 = 3) = = 4) = = 5) = = 6) = = 7) = = = = = = This is how the probability function looks graphically. Figure 2. The graph of the probability function of the random variable X ~ B(7 ; 0.8) Let's consider what the player of previously described characteristics could learn from the aforegoing analysis? The probability of scoring exactly 6 pairs, with one miss, is the highest in the previous distribution and is almost 37%. If we add to it the probability of exactly 5 hits, with exactly 2 failures, which are 27.53%, the sum of these two probabilities is 64.22%. It shows good chances of our player's strategy ticket to miss exactly one or at most two pairs. The probability that more than 4 pairs are missed, is almost negligible and is slightly more over 6%. This account shows why very good 606