III. Eating A. What Starts a Meal? 1. Physiological Factors (when to eat)

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1 Chapter 13: Motivation, Emotions, and Health A. Motivation-internal processes that serve to activate, guide, and maintain our behavior B. Emotions-reactions consisting of physiological reactions subjective cognitive states, and expressive behaviors C. Health-physiological, behavioral, emotional, and cognitive responses to stimuli that either prevent us from obtaining a goal or endanger our well being I. What is Motivation? A. Motivation is a group of phenomenon that affect the nature, strength, or persistence of an individual s behavior 1. A diverse phenomenon involved with all behaviors 2. Some motivational phenomenon on the individual environment (selection by reinforcement) and others are primarily genetic based II. Reinforcement and Motivation A. We are motivated to do things that provide us with reinforcement and less motivated to do things that produce punishers B. Untoward Effects of Reinforcement: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 1. There are different ways to categorize reinforcers: a. Extrinsic reinforcer-a reinforcer from the environment (trophies, candy) b. Intrinsic reinforcer-a reinforcer that happens internally (you experience pleasure when you see it) 2. Overjustification Effect-The undermining of intrinsic motivation by the application of extrinsic rewards to intrinsically motivated behavior a. During treatment period, a behavior is overjustified, in that the reinforcer decreases the specific behavior 3. Learned Helplessness-Reduced ability to learn a solvable avoidance task after exposure to an inescapable aversive stimulus a. This occurs when previous experience interferes with the process of reinforcement b. When organisms learn that their actions will have no effect of their environment c. This is how depression starts to develop in humans C. What Determines the Strength of Behavior? 1. Schedules of Intermittent Reinforcement a. Ratio Schedules b. Interval Schedules 2. Deprivation of Reinforcers a. The rate of responding increases as the time of deprivation increases 3. Availability of Reinforcers for Other Behaviors a. Our motivation changes when more options are available to us (we are likely to play Pac-man but less likely when Halo is around) b. Concurrent Schedules-Reinforcement schedule in which reinforcer are available for responding on two or more alternative operants D. What Determines the Persistence of Behavior? 1. Sequence of reinforced and unreinforced during training a. If we fail at a certain task then succeed, we are more likely to persist with a behavior b. If we experience too much failure however, we may give up on the task 2. The Partial Reinforcement Effect-the more demanding the schedule, the more persistent the behavior is 3. The Effects of Extinction a. Frustration effect-once an extinction period occurs, there is a relative increase in the rate of responding increases because we are used to the behavior with a result occurring i. We are frustrated when we put candy into a machine and nothing comes out b. Extinction-induced aggression-when the reinforcers that we expect do not come as a result of a certain behavior, we become aggressive III. Eating A. What Starts a Meal? 1. Physiological Factors (when to eat)

2 a. Hunger Pangs? (Cannon and Washburn, 1912) i. They believed that the rubbing of the stomach when it s empty causes the pangs. However when the stomach was removed, patients were still experiencing pangs b. Glucostatic Hypothesis i. Hunger occurs when blood glucose levels decrease to a certain level c. Ghrelin i. Hormone that is released when stomach is empty, supposedly causes hunger d. Liver i. The liver contains two different receptors that determine the level of glucose and fatty acids 2. Culture and Social (Environmental) Factors a. Time of Day b. Being with Others i. The type of food and when we eat can also be determined by the people we are around B. What Stops a Meal? 1. Physiological Factors a. Detectors responsible for satiety. The stomach measures its contents and sends messages to the brain accordingly. Also if the food you are eating is more nutritional, eating stops sooner than if it was not b. When the duodenum in the small intestine secretes a hormone (CCK) this tells us that we should stop eating 2. Hypothalamus a. Hormones like leptin are secreted from this gland b. When excess glucose is turned into fat, this secretes a hormone called leptin that tells us to stop eating c. Lateral hypothalamus-feeding initiation center d. Ventromedial hypothalamus-feeding satiety center C. Causes of Obesity 1. Behavioral factors a. We ve learned in the United States to eat as much as possible 2. Metabolic factors a. Depending on how fast we process food, determines how much food we should eat to be healthy b. The reason that slow metabolism was naturally selected was because food was very hard to come by early in our history. By storing them as fat, we were able to conserve as much energy until our next meal 3. Evolutionary factors a. In our prehistory, food is scarce b. Survival was based on ability to store energy as fat 4. Because food is abundant, storing energy as fat is no longer advantageous D. Anorexia Nervosa 1. People with this disorder limit their intake of food despite intense preoccupation with food 2. They have an intense fear of becoming obese, and this fear continues even they become dangerously thin E. Bulimia Nervosa 1. Characterized by a loss of control of food intake and is more common in women IV. Aggressive Behavior A. Ethological Studies of Aggression 1. Intraspecific Aggression-An attack of an animal on another member of its species a. Disperses a population throughout the environment. The adaptations required by these new environments increase the flexibility of the species b. It may also arise for male rivalry for mating opportunities 2. Threat and Appeasement a. Threat gestures-signifies a likely attack b. Appeasement gestures-signifies submission B. Hormones and Aggression 1. Hormones exert a strong effect on aggressiveness 2. They exhibit an organizational effect on the brain as well as an activational effect on developing secondary sex characteristics

3 3. It has been shown that testosterone levels appear to make the individual more aggressive C. Environmental Variables that Affect Human Aggression 1. Imitation of Aggression a. Kids will react more violently to situations when they see violent situations 2. Correlational data cannot establish whether watching violent TV produces aggression against other innate aggressiveness produces watching violent programming V. Sexual Behavior A. Effects of Sex Hormones on Behavior 1. Androgens a. Male hormones b. They have organizational effects-an effect of hormones that usually occurs during prenatal development and produces permanent changes that alter the subsequent development of the organism c. Activational effect-the effect of a hormone on a physiological after development d. Androgens create an increased interest with sexual behavior 2. Progesterone and Estrogen a. Physical and hormonal changes that come with ripening and disintegration of the ova. Females will engage in sexual activities most likely during the ovulatory phase of the estrous cycle, when the egg is most likely to be fertilized b. Women and other female primates however, will engage in sexual activities at any point in the cycle i. The reason for this may be naturally selected may be because primates and humans wanted to have monogamous relationships B. Sexual Orientation 1. The development of sexual orientation appears to have biological roots a. It appears to prior to adolescence and any sexual activity 2. Studies have identified regions of the brain that differ in size between in homosexual and heterosexual males 3. A large scale study of homosexuals failed to find evidence that child rearing practices fostered homosexuality 4. Transsexualism and Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome a. Androgen insensitivity syndrome-a condition caused by a congenital lack of functioning androgen receptors b. The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis is a part in the brain that supposedly deals with sexual identification. Transsexual-a person who perceives himself or herself as belonging to a different sex than that which they were assigned at birth VI. Emotion A. Emotion-refers to the behavior, physiological functions, and subjective feelings, that accompany motivated; a relatively brief display of a feeling made in response to environmental events having motivational significance or to memories of such events B. Emotions as Response Patterns 1. Emotional reactions have three components: behavioral, autonomic, and hormonal 2. Conditioned Emotional Response-a classically conditioned response that occurs when a neutral stimulus is followed by an aversive stimulus a. An example of this is when we have learned that a particular situation is dangerous, the next time we encounter that situation, we become frightened b. The region of the brain that is responsible for this is the amygdala, a region just in front of the hippocampus that converges sensory information with conditioned emotional responses c. Studies have shown that damage to the amygdala causes animals to not have fear to aversive situations C. Aggression, Moral Judgment, and Impulse Control 1. Role of Serotonin a. Serotonin inhibits aggressive behavior b. Low levels of serotonin has shown that these subjects are more aggressive 2. Role of the Ventral Prefrontal Cortex a. The ventral prefrontal cortex is located at the base of the anterior frontal lobes b. It is responsible to permit it to affect a variety of behaviors and physiological responses c. It is involved with emotional control. The ability to control our emotions and actions

4 3. Moral Judgment a. Moral judgment is apparently controlled by several regions of the brain including the medial prefrontal cortex b. It is found that damage to the prefrontal cortex results in tendencies to violent behaviors VII. The Expression and Recognition of Emotions A. The Social Nature of Emotional Expressions in Humans 1. Emotions communicate important information to other members of the species 2. Emotions are often produced by judging the significance of a particular situation 3. Social settings seem to amplify the expression of positive feelings but depress the expression of negative emotions B. The Universality of Emotional Expressions Humans 1. An experiment was done to see whether human facial expressions varied from different cultures a. The study found that facial expressions seem to be universal but no conclusion can be drawn on what this means b. It appears that the expression through facial expression is universal c. Facial expressions of blind and normal-sighted children are similar (they are not learned) 2. Cultural Differences a. One reason that members of some cultures are better able to recognize emotions is because these emotions are more important to them b. Certain cultures tend to feel more of a certain way than others which implies that these feelings are more important to the culture than others C. Situations that Produce Emotions: The Role of Cognition 1. Emotions do not spontaneously occur, they evoked as a result of a certain stimulus D. Feelings of Emotions 1. James-Lange theory-theory of emotion proposing that behavioral and physiological responses are directly elicited by situations; feelings of emotions are produced by feedback from these behavioral and psychological changes a. The changes of our physiology causes us to recognize the event as a certain emotion 2. Cannon-Bard theory-theory of emotion proposing that feelings of emotion, as well as behavioral and physiological responses are directly elicited by the environment a. The event leads to changes in physiology and your physiological state simultaneous 3. Studies have shown that the James-Lange Theory is more likely to be the reason for emotions (figure 13.14) VIII. Stress and Health A. Stress-A pattern of physiological, behavioral, emotional, and cognitive responses to stimuli (real or imagined) that are perceived as endangering our well-being. Stressors are stimuli that are perceived as endangering our well being B. Biological Basis of Stress 1. Selye s General Adaption Syndrome a. A three stage process we go through when we experience chronic stress b. Alarm stage-involves arousal of the autonomic nervous system and the organism may experience shock c. Resistance-autonomic system returns to normal but resistance to stressor increases to above normal levels d. Exhaustion-after a while, our bodies sources are depleted and resistance plummets leaving the organism susceptible to disease C. Cognitive Appraisal and Stress 1. Cognitive appraisal-our perception of a stressful situation 2. Primary Appraisal-first stage of cognitive appraisal during which we evaluate the seriousness of a threat a. Evaluate the stress b. If we declare the stress to be harmful, then we move onto secondary appraisal 3. Secondary Appraisal-second stage of cognitive appraisal, during which we evaluate the resources we have available to deal with a threat D. Behaviors Related to Stress and Impaired Health 1. Stress Reactions and CHD

5 a. Type A behavior pattern-chd more likely because this type of behavior is characterized by impatience, competitiveness, and hostility b. Type B behavior pattern-chd less likely because this type of behavior is characterized by patience, less competitiveness, and less hostility 2. Psychoneuroimmunology a. The way we think can affect our physiology b. Neural Control of the Immune system i. When we are stressed the brain releases a hormone called glucocorticoids which suppress the immune system ii. When the hormone stimulates lymphocytes and decrease the white blood cell count IX. Coping with Everyday Stress A. Coping Styles and Strategies 1. Problem-focused coping strategies-reducing stress by getting rid of the problem 2. Emotion-focused coping strategies-reducing stress by changing the way we react emotionally to the stressor B. Aerobic Exercise 1. Exercising regularly reduces stress C. Cognitive Reappraisal 1. Changing your attitude or the way you think about things can help reduce your stress D. Relaxation Training 1. Breathing exercises and other relaxation techniques can greatly reduce stress E. Social Support 1. Talking about your problems with other people helps reduce your stress F. Stress Inoculation Training-the stress management program developed by Meichenbaum to help people develop coping skills that increase their resistance to the negative effects of stress 1. According to psychologist Donald Meichenbaum, if we anticipate which kinds of stressors will affect us we can develop plans to cope with these types of stressors 2. There are 7 goals that are involved with stress inoculation training that will ultimately help you cope with or get rid of your stressor (see page 422 figure 13.2)

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