The Stroop Effect The Effect of Interfering Colour Stimuli Upon Reading Names of Colours Serially ABSTRACT
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1 The Stroop Effect The Effect of Interfering Colour Stimuli Upon Reading Names of Colours Serially ABSTRACT This experiment, a partial duplication of the work of Stroop (l935) l, aimed to demonstrate the cognitive interference caused by conflicting stimuli, as measured by delayed reaction times in participants asked to read a list of words and name the colour of the words (using incongruent colour-word pairs). Laboratory trials were conducted on twelve (l2) voluntary, anonymous participants, with the Independent Variable being the colour stimulus, the Dependent Variable being the reaction time of the participants to read the word lists. No interaction took place between the researcher and the participants, apart from the briefing, de-briefing and reading of the word lists. The results revealed significant differences in the mean time to read the words and name the colours across the whole research population, and by participants of different ages. This confirms that interfering stimuli affect cognitive processes. Individual factors such as nationality, mother tongue and familiarity with the test language (English) were not taken into consideration. l INTRODUCTION Cognition is the mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. By studying the mediators 2 between stimuli and the consequential responses, the approach argues that humans process information as computers do, Glassman and Haddad (2004). When conflicting stimuli are sensed, the most strongly developed cognitive process dominates the response. It is instinctive to read words as they are written, irrespective of the ink colour, because the process of learning to read entrenches the recognition and processing of letters into words. Conversely, the human mind has difficulty in naming colours when words describe another colour. Stroop (1935) described this interference after studying the effects on attention of conflicting word and colour stimuli. 3 Stroop studied naming colours serially, using solid coloured squares; then introduced words, using incongruent wordcolour pairs to act as interference, Engel-Andreasen (2008). This resulted in the research subjects taking longer to name the colours in which the words were printed. The experiment was a form of operationalisation, as the interference is
2 physically measurable by recording times, Hill (1998). Jaensch (1929) also studied volunteers responses to words printed in incongruent colours. 3 Cattell (1885) reported that it was quicker and easier to read words than to name objects and colours aloud, Bower (1992). This experiment anticipated that the words would influence the ability of the participants to name the colour. The cognitive interference is explained by two possible theories 4 : Speed of Processing Theory: Words tend to be read faster than colours can be named. Selective Attention Theory: The process of naming colours requires more cognitive processing than reading words. A process or event within the individual which comes between a stimulus and a response Glassman and Haddad (2004) 3 METHOD DESIGN The experiment was conducted in laboratory conditions for maximum control, accurate measurement, and replication purposes. To ensure no prior interaction between the researcher and participants, the latter were selected from lower grades and remained anonymous. Other than briefing, conducting the experiment and debriefing, the researcher and participants did not interact. Obtaining informed consent from the participants parental guardians and requesting permission from the respective teachers to engage their students ensured ethical consistency. The participants were informed of their right to withdraw. As the experiment entailed reading a prescribed list of words (Control Variable), there was no physical, emotional or mental harm. No participants were taken advantage of nor deceived unnecessarily. The Independent Variable 5 was the colour stimulus, while the Dependent Variable 6 was the time taken to name the colours. PARTICIPANTS Opportunity sampling was used to select three participants in each of four age groups (ll- and l2-year-olds in Year 7; l6- and l7-year-olds in Year l2). Four participants were male and eight female. To avoid researcher bias, the participants were allocated random numbers and tested individually. MATERIALS
3 The materials consisted of a consent form for participants (Appendix i (a)); permission letter for teachers (Appendix i (b)); standardised instructions/briefing and de-briefing note (Appendix ii); a raw data collection sheet (Appendix iii); a Stroop word list (Appendix iv); a stopwatch; and numbers (for random participant selection). 5 The variable that is manipulated in two or more conditions to see what effect it has on the dependent variable - Hill (l998). 6 The main measured outcome of the experiment due to the manipulation of the Independent Variable - Hill(l998). PROCEDURE The experiment took place in a quiet, well-lit classroom. Before beginning, the researcher read the briefing note aloud (Appendix ii) to the group. The participants selected numbers randomly. The participants were called using the numbers; and their age, gender and nationality recorded. The participants were then tested in two ways: (l) reading the words; (2) naming the colours of the words. The instruction was given, in both instances, to read/name the words/colours from left to right starting at the first row; as quickly as possible. The time taken for each test was recorded. The procedure was conducted twice for each participant. Lastly, the participants were questioned about their performance and reaction to the experiment. The researcher noted the answers on the raw data collection sheet (Appendix iii), along with incidents where participants encountered difficulties. The participants were consequently debriefed (Appendix ii) and the experiment concluded. RESULTS DESCRIPTION The scores were compiled (Appendix v), then analysed using the statistical measures of mean 7, range 8 and standard deviation 9 (Appendix vi). The combined trials (Trials One and Two) were considered using the total sample and by age group. The mean time to name the colours of the words was l3.l7 seconds longer than the time to read the words (Figure l). The range in time to name the colours was l4.70 seconds; and the range in time to read the words was l2.02 seconds. The reaction time of the participants varied by age (Table l). The interference was least on the l2-year-olds, where the difference in mean time between
4 reading the words and naming 7 The average value in the range of results 8 The difference between the highest and lowest value in the range of results 9 The measure of the variation/dispersion in the range of results relative to the mean the colours was seconds. The age group most affected was the 17-yearolds, where the difference was seconds (Figure 2). Figure l: Mean overal reaction times for reading words and naming colours Table l: Mean reaction times for reading words and naming colours Mean times (s) Participant Reading Naming Difference Proportional age words colours increase Mean
5 Figure 2: Mean overall reaction times for reading words and colours, by age of partici pants The time range to read the words was greatest in the 12-year-olds (10.43), whereas that to name the colours was greatest in the 17-year-olds (13.68) (Table 2). Table 2: Range, by age, for reading words and naming colours Age Words Colours ANALYSIS The mean was calculated for both the total sample group and by age band. The longer times taken to name the colours indicate a significant level of interference. The results show an inverse correlation. The 12-year-olds had the highest mean time to read the words (15.04 seconds) and the highest spread of results (range: 10.43), suggesting divergent ability to read within this age band. The 17-yearolds had the lowest mean time to read the words (10.30 seconds), but the
6 highest spread of results when naming the colours (range: 13.68). These differences may have contributed to the apparent lesser and greater Stroop Effects in these two age bands. The participants gender and nationality was irrelevant. The trials were parametric as the participants were selected randomly to eliminate researcher bias; and no freedom was allowed other than post-trial interviews although using set questions still ensured researcher control. DISCUSSION The results confirmed that it is instinctive to read words correctly regardless of their colour; but more difficult to name the colour when incongruent colour word-pairs are presented. Whereas the mean time for reading words was expected to decline with increased age of the participants, reflecting greater experience in reading, the results for the 12-year-old participants did not follow this trend. Similarly, the mean time for naming the colours did not show a distinct age-related trend. The experiment could have been improved had more participants been taken from fewer age bands in the sample population. A small sample unrepresentative of the greater population is a weakness of opportunity sampling, Hill (1998). With larger numbers, differences in the cognitive and behavioural development by age band might be detected. Alternatively, all the participants could have been the same age. By design, the experiment was straightforward, with little room for human error. All controls possible were implemented, thus minimising the effect of any Extraneous Variables 10 on the Dependent Variable. However, in laboratory experimentation, control over all the variables is impossible; and the artificial conditions may produce unnatural behaviour that lacks ecological validity, Hill (1998). The research methodology was simple as each participant repeated the two reading trials twice. The nationality of the individual participants did not lead to any bias, as it was not considered. 10 Extraneous Variables are other variables that could potentially influence the Dependent Variable apart from the Independent Variable - Hill (1998) The
7 trials were conducted in English. The potential confounding variables such as foreign language speakers, learning difficulties, or physiological anomalies, cannot be discounted. Future studies of the Stroop Effect could focus on language, to evaluate the influence of this on the participants reaction times. The test could also be conducted in the students respective mother tongues and compared to their performances in English, to ascertain the influence of language level. The extent of the Stroop Effect is questionable. Stroop interference is a measure of two cognitive problems: overcoming integration and managing two conflicting information sources. The integration problem can be overcome with practice, with the extent of interference reducing with successive trials such that integration of the two dimensions (word and colour) and non-integration of the two dimensions gives similar results, MacLeod (1998). This is not taken into account during simple measures of the Stroop Effect, as in this experiment. The design of the experiment was sound. The researcher was competent to conduct the experiment and behaved professionally throughout the procedure. All forms of ethical procedure were observed. CONCLUSION This experiment confirmed that interfering stimuli affect cognitive processes. A significant difference was found between the ability to read words and name colours (in incongruent colour-word pairs): overall, naming took seconds longer than reading, the time to name being twice as long as to read. Measurable differences were also noted between the different age bands of the participants, with 12-year-olds taking only 1.7 times as long to name colours compared to 17 -year-olds who took 2.6 times as long. This phenomenon has not been explored in this experiment, but is worthy of further research. REFERENCES BOOKS Engel-Andreasen, M. (2008). The Effect of Interfering Word Stimuli upon Naming Colours Serially. Nyborg Gymnasium. Glassman, W. E. and Haddad, M. (2004). Approaches to Psychology. Fourth Edition. McGraw-Hill House, England.
8 Hill, G. (1998). Oxford Revision Guides, AS & A Level Psychology. Oxford University Press, New York. WEBSITES Cognitive interference. Last updated: 15 February Viewed 19 February 2010 ColinMacLeod. Last updated: 4 January Viewed 3 February J Ridley Stroop. Last updated: 13 April Viewed 17 February Stroop Effect. Last updated: unknown. Viewed 19 February 2010 ARTICLES Atwood, J. Psychology Internal Assessment: The holy guide to writing your report. School handout. Bower, B. (1992). Brother Stroop's enduring effect - J. Ridley Stroop, experimental psychology. Science News. Volume 141, pages Found at Last updated: unknown. Viewed 19 February MacLeod, C. (1998). Training on integrated versus separated Stroop tasks: The progression of interference and facilitation. Memory & Cognition Volume 26(2), pages Found at Last updated: 4 January Viewed 3 February DICTIONARIES New Oxford American Dictionary. Macintosh OS X. Oxford American Writer s Thesaurus. Macintosh OS X. APPENDICES Appendix i (a) Informed consent form Appendix i (b) Permission letter Appendix ii Standardised instructions/briefing and De- Briefing note Appendix iii Raw data collection sheet Appendix iv Stroop word list
9 Appendix v Composite raw data Appendix vi Composite data, analysed statistically Appendix vii Statistical calculation formulae Appendix i (a) INFORMED CONSENT FORM 4 February 2010 Dear Parents RE: PERMISSION REQUEST TO PARTICIPATE IN A PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENT As a standard level psychology student, I am required, as part of the Internal Assessment process, to perform a simple experiment and analyse the data collected. I plan to conduct a Stroop Test and would like to use Mrs Carter s Year 12 psychology class as a sample group for the test. In the Stroop Test, students are given a list of words to read. Each word is printed in a different colour. There are two time intervals taken, one for purely reading the list and the second variable is reading the colours instead of the words. The independent variable oftime is measured in both instances. There is no cultural or ethical bias in performing the test. The results of the test will give a statistical measurement of cognitive reaction time to both sets of variables. Your child will remain anonymous throughout this experiment and it will be held in controlled conditions. Only the data will be studied. Students will receive a full debriefing at the end of the experiment. I, therefore, kindly request your permission for your child to participate in this simple experiment on Wednesday, 10 February 2010 (during your child s psychology lesson). Yours sincerely Olivia Scott Year 13 C SL Psychology student I give/do not give (circle desired response) permission for my child to
10 take part in the experiment. Signature Date Please complete and return by Sunday, 7 February Appendix i (b) PERMISSION LETTER - YEAR 7
11 Appendix i (b) PERMISSION LETTER - YEAR 12
12 Appendix ii STANDARDISED INSTRUCTIONS/BRIEFING AND DE-BRIEFING NOTE INSTRUCTIONS This psychology experiment will run the course of this lesson. To ensure that a controlled environment/lab conditions is maintained, it is very important that you cooperate and follow instructions. Do not disturb the experiment while it is taking place (if you are not participating in the experiment itself). Do not interact with each other or with me (other than being briefed and debriefed and taking part in the experiment). Those who are have participated, please sit (in allocated area) and continue with your school assignments. It is very important that you remain silent and do not interfere with those participating at any stage. Those who are participating, please take a number. This is done to ensure there is no researcher bias. Do not share your number. When your number is called, you will participate in the experiment and then return to your seat, where you will continue with your school assignments, remaining silent and not interfering/disturbing anyone else, including those participating in the experiment. You will now be briefed before the experiment, and once all the participants have completed the experiment, you will be debriefed. The experiment will then be concluded. BRIEFING You are about to participate in a psychology experiment. Your reaction time in reading printed words and then reading the colour of the printed words will be measured. You have the right to withdraw from this experiment at any stage. Your name, age, nationality and identity will remain confidential. At the end of the experiment you will be fully debriefed. During the test, you will be asked to read a list of words. You are to read the words as quickly as you can. The time taken for you to read these words will be recorded. You will then be asked to name the colours the words are printed in. You are to name the colours as quickly as you can. The time for you to name the colour of the word will also be recorded. Both tests will be repeated twice.
13 If you make a mistake (clarify what meant by mistake wrong test done), you will be asked to start that test again from the beginning. If you have any questions, please address them now. DEBRIEFING The aim of this experiment was to test your reaction time to read a list of words as you see them and then to test your reaction time when asked to name the colours the words were printed in. More specifically, the interference of the colour stimuli in your overall reaction time between the first and second test was measured. Your results are highly beneficial to this experiment and I value and appreciate your participation. Should you have any further questions, please do not hesitate to ask me (Olivia Scott, Year 13 C). Date Participant details: Age... Gender... Nationality Mother tongue Glasses/Lenses Analysis of data: Words (seconds) Colours (seconds) Trial 1 Trial 2 Result Additional observations: Which words tended to be difficult? Was this the same word? Did the colour of the word make a difference? Did the test become easier or harder the second time? Appendix iv STROOP WORD LIST
14 Red Blue Green Blue Black Yellow Green Orange Green Red Pink Black Brown Yellow Grey Blue Red Green Pink Brown Orange Black Blue Green Red Appendix vi COMPOSITE DATA, ANALYSED STATISTICALLY Average Ag Gender Words Words 2 Colours Colours Word Colour 11 F F F M M F M F F M F F Average Age Gender Words Words Colours Colours Words Colou 11 F rs F F Me an Rang St e 12 d M De M v F Me Rang an St e 16 d M De F v F Me Rang e
15 St 17 d M F F Me Rang St Tot d Me STATISTICAL CALCULATION FORMULAE Mean Range Value x frequency Sum of frequency Differences between maximum value and minimum value Standard Deviation Calculated using Microsoft Excel functions Proportional Increase Mean time to name colours Mean time to read words
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