Leading: Individual and Group Behavior

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1 2007 The Learning House, Inc. Page 1

2 Introduction As one of the four major functions of a manager, the capacity to effectively lead a group of people can largely depend upon the ability of the manager to recognize and respond to certain type behaviors. The manager must also be aware of the fact that behavior will influence the employee s attitude toward his job and whether or not he performs well on it. Lesson six looks at types of behavior (in particular organizational), which encompasses employee attitudes, individual personalities, people s perceptions, and how people learn. This lesson is especially important in that it also deals with how managers can work through and around problems arising from behavioral traits. Why Look at Individual Behavior? As the chart shown below indicates, organizational behavior can be further subdivided into individual behavior and group behavior. It is first important to look at behavior on an individual basis because even if an individual belongs to a group, it doesn t mean that he or she shares all the same attitudes. Given a situation and if separated from the group to which he or she belongs, the individual may react to the same situation differently than if thrown in with the group. People are unique and so are their attitudes, personalities, the way they perceive things, how they learn and by what stimulus they are motivated. Why should the manager be informed about individual behavior? It helps the manager explain why employees behave in a certain manner, predict how an employee will react in various situations and influence employee behavior. In particular, the manager is interested in influencing five important employee behaviors: productivity, absenteeism, turnover, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and, job satisfaction. Organizational Behavior Concerns Individual Behavior Attitudes Personality Perception Learning Motivation Group Behavior Norms Roles Team building Leadership Conflict All five behaviors have profound implications with regard to organizational performance. When an individual s behavior negatively affects productivity, his effectiveness and efficiency decline. And, of course, excessive absenteeism will affect how well the entire organization will function. Employees need to be able to fit into groups or teams so OCB is important for the overall working of the organization. An organization needs and wants qualified individuals. Therefore the manager seeks to minimize turnovers and help the employees have positive attitudes toward their job or job satisfaction. Again, this lesson is geared at recognizing some things about the psyche of an individual employee and consequently there are four areas of an individual s psyche that this lesson will address attitudes, personality, perception and learning The Learning House, Inc. Page 2

3 Attitudes How many times have you heard someone say, Ignore him, he just has an attitude or Don t get an attitude about it!? Attitudes are defined as evaluative statements, either favorable or unfavorable, concerning objects, people, or events. Statements like these not only express that someone else has an attitude but the individual making these statements has formed an attitude, as well. Attitudes are made up of three components: the cognitive component, the affective component and the behavioral component. The cognitive part expresses a belief or opinion, the affective component involves an accompanying emotion or feeling and the behavioral component appends what the person believes is an appropriate reaction. Although all three of these components constitute the whole, generally speaking, attitude refers to the affective component or what is seen as emotion. The attitude that an individual has toward his or her job can affect more than just production. Negative job attitudes can account not only for poor production on the part of the individual experiencing this dilemma but it can also affect the individual s absenteeism, whether or not he decides to stay with the organization and if in a customer service position, how he or she deals with customers. How can managers help employees experience better job satisfaction? For one thing, when an individual is well matched with the job he or she is doing, there is a higher level of job satisfaction. If individuals don t like what they are doing they may not do it well. Managers can do what is in their power to match the job with the individual. Then too, when an individual perceives that his or her contribution to the organization is appreciated, the individual tends to do a better job. Many organizations give employees attitude surveys to determine how they feel about their jobs, their co-workers, their supervisors and the organization as a whole. This information will help a manager understand what employees are thinking in terms of their working conditions so that managers can take steps to ward off certain actions on the part of the employee or to improve things that employees deem unfair from their standpoint. Personality When someone asks you what you think about a certain person, you usually will ascribe certain adjectives to that person. Adjectives like pretty, short, blond or brown-eyed describe their physical appearance. However, adjectives like funny, peculiar, angry or happy describe an individual s personality. Then personality is defined as the unique combination of psychological characteristics that affect how a person reacts and interacts with others. Identified as one of the four psychological factors affecting behavior, the employee s personality can help determine what type job is best suited for an employee. There have been several different approaches that have been employed to classify personality traits. One such approach is the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). It contains over The Learning House, Inc. Page 3

4 questions and addresses questions about how an individual would feel or act given certain situations. Depending upon how the tested individual answers, he or she is slotted at one end or another of four dimensions. The following summarizes the dimensions and lists the two extremes of each: Extreme 1 Extreme 2 Extreme 1 Extreme 2 Myers Briggs Type Indicator - Summary Chart DIMENSION Extrovert Introvert DIMENSION Sensing Intuitive DIMENSION Social interaction Definition Someone who is outgoing, dominant, often aggressive and wants to change the world An individual who s shy and withdrawn and focuses on understanding the world Preference for gathering data Individuals who love a routine to their lives Individuals who like solving new problems Preference for decision making Extreme 1 Feeling Individuals who are empathetic Extreme 2 Extreme 1 Thinking DIMENSION Perceptive Individuals who are not ruled by their emotions Style of making decisions An individual who is quick to understand and discern things Traits Varied and action oriented work environment likes being around others Prefers a quiet, concentrated and secluded work environment Need closure, are patient and do good and precise work Like solving new problems, dislike doing and are impatient with routine things, jump to conclusions Like harmony, sympathetic, relate well to most people, need occasional praise Unemotional, not interested in other people s feelings, relate well to others like them, seem hard-hearted Curious, spontaneous, 2007 The Learning House, Inc. Page 4

5 flexible, adaptable, tolerant Extreme 2 Judgmental An individual who tends to judge or criticize Decisive, exacting, purposeful, good planners Dependent upon how respondents answer questions that deal with the above dimensions, their answers are summarized to form 16 different personality types. Although there is no solid evidence indicating that the results of the MBTI test are valid, many organizations still rely on it to determine employee personalities. Another personality test used by some employers is the Big Five Model. It outlines five basic personality types, which recent research corroborates are the underlying all other traits and account for variation in human personality. The five personality traits used are: 1) Extraversions degree to which one is sociable, talkative and assertive 2) Agreeableness degree to which one is good- natured, cooperative and trusting 3) Conscientiousness degree to which one is responsible, dependable, persistent and achievement oriented 4) Emotional stability degree to which one is calm, enthusiastic and secure, (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative) 5) Openness to experience degree to which one is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual Personality researchers have identified five other personality traits that help explain behavior in organizations. They are: locus of control- the extent to which people believe they control their own fate Machiavellianism loner type who believes ends justify means self-esteem how people feel about self [ like or dislike] self-monitoring ability to adjust behavior to external conditions risk propensity degree to how much one is willing to take chances Of course, whether types or traits are considered to have a negative or positive connotation depends on the culture in which they are exhibited. Traits that some cultures consider desirable other cultures may not. One other aspect of behavior deals with emotions, which are defined as intense feelings tat are directed at someone or something. Although the number of emotions that can be identified are numerous, behavioral researchers have narrowed the number of universal emotions down to six, that being: anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust and surprise. How people respond to 2007 The Learning House, Inc. Page 5

6 any given situation largely depends upon their personality or what emotions are invoked due to the personality inherent in them. This may or may not be the case in the work environment. Sometimes how an individual reacts to a situation is defined by what the job requires. Oftentimes the job requires that the employee acts in a certain manner without using a thought process because a detailed set of instructions has been provided that tells the person what to do. In addition to the Big Five Model, researcher John Holland identified six basic personality types: realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising, artistic. What does all this mean to a manager? There s a lot of information out there there are several different approaches from which to choose. What do all these researchers have in common? They observed. A manager may use some or all of the approaches but the manager s instinct as a manager along with observation will allow him or her to help employees match their job to their personality. Perception What do you expect to see when you look at the clouds? Some people only see clouds. Others see various figures including dogs, birds, cars, etc. What one sees is a matter of perception. Perception is seen as the process of organizing and interpreting sensory impressions in order to give meaning to the environment. The way one organizes and how one interprets what one sees have a lot to do with attitudes, personalities, motives, interests, experiences and expectations. An individual s perceptions about people are more significant than his or her perceptions about objects since objects don t have beliefs, motives or intentions. To explain why perceptions of people are different there is a theory called the attribution theory. This theory simply says that we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior. Added to that, the theory suggests that the behavior that a person exhibits can be externally or internally motivated. If externally motivated then the person reacted in the only way that he or she could. If internally motivated then the person chose to behave the way he or she did. Whether an externally or internally motivated action depends on three factors: Distinctiveness if behavior is unusual, then it is assumed that the behavior was externally motivated but if the behavior is not unusual, then it is assumed to be internally motivated Consensus if everyone acts the same in the same situation, then again, the behavior is assumed to be externally motivated but if everyone acted other than the way one individual did in the same situation, then the behavior is assumed to be internally motivated Consistency if the behavior is the usual behavior then it is assumed to be internally motivated but if the behavior is unusual, then the behavior is assumed to be externally motivated 2007 The Learning House, Inc. Page 6

7 However, with the attribution theory there is the possibility of attributing too much to behavior based on the internal forces and not enough on the external forces. One must also be careful not to judge individuals based on assumed similarity or the like me effect; stereotypying or saying because one person of a group is that way all persons of that same group are that way and; the halo effect or saying because an individual possesses one trait he or she must also possess traits that you assume go along with that one. Managers must remain cognizant of the fact that employees react on what they perceive and not what is reality. Because of this, there is the possibility for perceptual distortion. Learning Learning is the last of the four mentioned behaviors and is defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. The learning process is a continual process since one can always gain knowledge from one s daily experiences. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which people learn through various stimuli. Either the person learns by being rewarded for what he or she does or does not do or the person is punished for what he or she does or does not do. Further, B.F. Skinner, who originated this theory, says that immediately following the behavior with a reward would increase the frequency of the behavior. Another form of learning is social learning. The theory behind this learning says that people can learn through observation and direct experience. How much one can learn through this method is determined by four processes: 1) Attentional processes must pay attention and recognize critical features 2) Retention processes how well what is observed is retained 3) Motor reproduction processes how well the individual can duplicate the behavior 4) Reinforcement processes if the individual is reinforced for the behavior Managers can use either or both of these models to help shape the employee. How? By reinforcing each step that the employee makes toward coming closer to the intended behavior. A manager may choose to reinforce the employee in one of four ways: positive, negative, punishment or extinction. The first two reinforce the desired behavior. Understanding Groups Previously, organizational behavior was introduced and the student was informed that it is divided into two types individual and group behavior. Just as an individual is characterized by a certain behavior, so, too is a group. A group is defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals. Added to that, a group can be either formal, one fashioned by the organization for specific work or informal, one formed by the need for social purposes. Groups 2007 The Learning House, Inc. Page 7

8 develop in several different stages beginning with stage one which is the actual formation of the group and ending with (but not necessarily) stage five or the adjournment of the group. Stage five does not necessarily take place, especially when it comes to informal groups. Between stages one and five are stages two, the storming stage, stage three, the norming stage and stage four, the performing stage. Stage two is designated the storming stage because it is when group members recognize the existence of the group but still strive for independence and clarity as to who will be in control of the group. Stage three is when the group forms close relationships and begins to gel as a group. It is in this stage that group behavior is defined. In stage four, the group begins to function to achieve the intended purpose for its existence. Of course, it can be the case that because of personal conflicts, groups never get beyond the first stage and communication within the group breaks down to the extent that nothing gets accomplished. This way of looking at groups as forming in various stages is not a hard and fast rule. In actuality, some of the stages of the formation of the group may occur simultaneously and in other cases some stages may be out of order. Explaining Work-Group Behavior Some groups are more successful than others in achieving their intended goals. This is for a number of reasons. Some of the more obvious reasons may have to do with group size, the resources and skills that its members bring to the group, how much conflict is encountered within the group as well as external pressures brought about by the group belonging to a larger organization which too, has rules and regulations to which the group must conform. Added to that, personalities that each group member brings along with them may not be conducive to a group arrangement. Traits such as sociability, self-reliance and independence relate positively to group productivity while traits like authoritarianism, dominance and unconventionality do not. Groups that transcend cultural lines face a different set of challenges in that cultural characteristics that are admired in one country may not be so desirable in others. Since groups are designed to work as a unit, they have structure. It is this structure that defines how the group will behave as a unit. It also distinguishes between member roles, sets group norms, dictates how members should conform, determines the relevancy of status, optimizes group size, requires group cohesiveness and is persuaded by those in leadership positions. Roles in a group are either directed toward task accomplishment or toward maintaining group member satisfaction. Norms deal with acceptable standards or expectations of which the most widespread are related to levels of effort and performance. Conformity is related to how an individual is accepted. Because people want to be accepted in a group, they often conform to 2007 The Learning House, Inc. Page 8

9 others opinions to gain this acceptance, a phenomenon known as groupthink. Status systems refer to grading, position or rank within a group. In some groups, everyone is assumed to be of equal rank because the group was formed with the intention that everyone would have equal say. However, in some groups, individuals are viewed according to the ranks that they have in their various departments. When it comes to group size, larger groups do better when it comes to problem solving and obtaining diverse input while smaller groups are more with facts that have been obtained and faster completion of tasks. The optimal size group seems to be somewhere around seven. An odd number is preferred to even as it helps avoid decision deadlocks. With respect to group cohesiveness, research has found a correlation between cooperation in a group and the group s productivity. Once a group is formed, what things go on inside a group? There are certain processes that take place within the group. Some of the processes that the group engages in are the group members communicate with one another, they come together to make decisions and the attempt to manage conflict, just to name a few. Of the three mentioned, the latter two are of the most importance to the manager. Groups have an instinctive advantage over individuals when it comes to making decisions. For one thing, information and ideas are pooled from a number of persons rather than from just one. Then too, having more people in the decision making process means that more alternatives can be identified since each member contributes thoughts from his or her own perspective. Because the decision is coming from a group rather than from an individual, it is met with less resistance as it is a collaborative effort. Finally, decisions that are made by a group rather than by one individual are looked at as more legitimate. Just as there are pros in favor of group decisions, there are also drawbacks associated with it. Among these are the amount of time that it takes for groups to come to decisions; the fact that the decision may have been influenced by the status of some of the members; some members may have been pressured to agree to the decision rather than be seen as a non-conformist and; although all members share the responsibility, the responsibility of any single member may be diluted. Conflict is perceived incompatible differences that result in interference or opposition. There are three different views regarding conflict: the traditional view of conflict, the human relations view of conflict and the interactionist view of conflict. The traditional view holds that conflict of any type must be avoided since it is assumed it indicates a problem with the group. In the human relations view of conflict, conflict is considered inevitable and has the potential to be a positive force in contributing to a group s performance. The last and most recent view, that of the interactionist says that conflict is not only a positive thing but it is a necessary thing if a group is to perform effectively. In conjunction with the interactionist view of conflict, two opposing views are also addressed conflict that is counter-productive or dysfunctional and conflict that is seen as constructive or functional. Conflicts 2007 The Learning House, Inc. Page 9

10 can also be looked at in terms of their association with the group task (content and goals of work), relationship (interpersonal relationships) or process (how the work gets done). A group is formed and charged with doing a certain task or a number of tasks. These tasks can be routine or complex. The more complex the task, the more interdependence required among group members. It requires that members communicate with one another in an effective and timely fashion, as well. It also requires that conflict be managed and put into perspective. Turning Groups Into Effective Teams Groups and teams differ in that a group interacts for the purpose of sharing information and making decisions to help each member do his or her job more efficiently and effectively while a work team is composed of members who work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability and complementary skills. Emphasis today is on the formation of teams because organizations have found that teams generally outperform individuals because of the varied skills, experiences and the perspective that team members bring regarding making decisions. The four most common types of teams are problem-solving teams, self-managed work teams, cross-functional teams, and virtual teams. These teams are characterized in the following manner: Problem-solving teams teams composed of from 5 to 12 employees from the same department or function area and who rarely had the authority to unilaterally implement any of their suggested actions Self-managed teams teams that could solve problems, implement solutions and take full responsibility for outcomes Cross-functional teams composed of individuals who are experts in various specialties and who work together on various tasks Virtual teams teams that use computer technology to link physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal The characteristics that are associated with effective teams include the following: 1) Clear goals 2) Relevant skills 3) Mutual trust 4) Unified commitment 5) Good communication 6) Negotiating skills 2007 The Learning House, Inc. Page 10

11 7) Appropriate leadership 8) Internal and external support Managers, when forming teams, can assure that some of the above criteria are met, such as clear goals, relevant skills, appropriate leadership, and external support. The rest are left up to the members of the team The Learning House, Inc. Page 11

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