Sport Leadership in a Cross-National Setting: The Case of Japanese and Canadian University Athletes

Transcription

1 JOURNAL OF SPORT & EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY, 1988, 10, Sport Leadership in a Cross-National Setting: The Case of Japanese and Canadian University Athletes Packianathan Chelladurai, Hiroaki Imamura, Yasuo Yamaguchi, Yoshihiro Oinuma, and Takatorno Miyauchi The study explored the differences between Japanese (n = 1 15) and Canadian (n = 100) university level male athletes in their leader behavior preferences, their perceptions of leader behaviors, their satisfactions with leadership and personal outcome, and the relationships between leader behaviors and satisfactions. The results of MANOVA showed that (a) the Japanese athletes preferred more autocratic behavior and social support while the Canadian athletes preferred significantly more training and instruction; (b) the Japanese athletes perceived higher levels of autocratic behavior while the Canadian athletes perceived higher levels of training and instruction, democratic behavior, and positive feedback; and (c) the Canadian athletes expressed significantly more satisfaction with both leadership and personal outcome than the Japanese athletes. The results of the correlational and multiple regression analyses showed similarities as well as dissimilarities in the manner in which perceived leader behaviors were associated with the satisfaction measures in the two groups. Overall, the results of the study were more supportive of the cultural-influence hypothesis than of the athletic-imperatives hypothesis. Recent approaches to the study of leadership have emphasized the importance of the interaction of individual and situational characteristics in the determination of leadership effectiveness (e.g., Fiedler, 1967; Graen & Cashman, 1975; House, 1971; House & Dessler, 1974; Osborn & Hunt, 1975). Researchers in sport leadership have also adopted the situational approach in studying leadership. For instance, the multidimensional model of leadership (Chelladurai, 1978; Chelladurai & Carron, 1978) is a synthesis of some of the above situational approaches to leadership that have emphasized (a) the leader characteristics (e.g., Author aflliations: P. Chelladurai is with The University of Western Ontario; H. Imarnura is with Chiba University, Japan; Y. Yarnaguchi is with the National Institute of Sports and Fitness, Japan; Y. Oinuma is with Tokai University, Japan; and T. Miyauchi is with Waseda University, Japan. Requests for reprints should be sent to P. Chelladurai, Faculty of Physical Education, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 3K7.

2 Japanese and Canadian Athletes / 375 Fiedler, 1967); (b) the members' needs and desires (e.g., House, 1971; House & Dessler, 1974); and (c) the organizational demands (e.g., Osborn & Hunt, 1975). The model's major proposition is that performance and satisfaction are a function of the congruence among three states of leadership: actual leader behavior, leader behavior preferred by members, and required leader behavior (i.e., the behavior dictated by the situational characteristics including organizational goals, structure, task type, and sociocultural prescriptions and proscriptions). According to the model, these three states of leader behavior are affected by the antecedents of leader characteristics, member characteristics, and situational characteristics. The emerging literature in sport leadership shows that several authors have included some of the antecedent elements of the model in their research studies. For example, organizational goals reflected in the dichotomy between competitive and recreational sports (Erle, 1981), institutional variables of size and funding (Weiss & Friedrichs, 1986), task characteristics (Chelladurai, 1984; Chelladurai & Carron, 1981; Chelladurai & Saleh, 1978; Terry & Howe, 1984), gender differences (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1978; Erle, 1981), and nationality (Chelladurai, Malloy, Imamura, & Yamaguchi, 1987; Terry, 1984) have been used in the analyses of sport leadership and/or athlete reactions to leadership. Weiss and Friedrichs (1986) also found that higher levels of rewarding behavior, social support, and democratic behavior were associated with higher levels of athlete satisfaction. Further, the discrepancy between preferred leadership and perceived leadership has been found to be related to athlete satisfaction (Chelladurai, 1984; Horne & Carron, 1985). The present study of sport leadership from a cross-national perspective is an extension of the earlier work by Chelladurai et al. (1987) and Terry (1984). The study of sport leadership across national boundaries is important since sport has become truly an international phenomenon. It is not uncommon to see athletes of different nationalities competing for the same team at the professional and university level under the leadership of a local or a foreign coach. Similarly, foreign coaches have also been employed to coach national teams. Despite these significant developments, there have been no systematic research efforts to gain more insight into the effects of national or cultural differences on sport leadership, its processes, and its effectiveness. Such research efforts should yield some practical guidelines to both coaches and athletes involved in multicultural or multinational sport teams. Terry's (1984) study of the leadership preferences of athletes of different nationalities (British, Canadian, and American) provides a backdrop for the development of two viewpoints on the topic. He attributed a lack of differences in preferred leadership among the athletes of the three nationalities to the fact that "the three viable subject groups (Canada, U.S.A. and Great Britain) all share similar cultural backgrounds and sporting 206). The tacit assumption in such an argument is that culture, defined as "the attitudes, beliefs, and values of a society" (Fayerweather, 1959, p. 7), would indeed control and constrain individual behaviors in a leadership situation. That is, the actual behaviors of coaches and/or preferred leadership behaviors would markedly vary across nations if they are also culturally differentiated. This would be the viewpoint of "divergence" due to culture or the "cultural influence" hypothesis. An alternate viewpoint that could be supported by Terry's findings is that

3 376 / Chelladumi, Zmamura, Yamaguchi, Oinurna, and Miyauchi of "convergence," which has been expressed in the industrial field. It has been suggested that the ''imperatives' ' of industrialization ''imposes a number of common forces on a society" (Pascale, 1978, pp ), and that "this logic [of industrialization] is, irrespective of culture or economic or political system, steadily pervading the design and management of organizations that are subject to performance requirements" (Child & Tayeb, 1983, p. 26). In extrapolating this line of reasoning to the athletic context, it could be argued that coaches and athletes from different cultures would have similar behavioral dispositions since they are involved in athletics, which are also governed by performance requirements. Thus, Terry's (1984) finding of no differences in leadership preferences between athletes of different nationalities could be due to the intense response situation of athletics overriding the cultural effects. The relative success of foreign coaches and approaches for training local athletes may be viewed as supporting the proposition that the athletic imperatives would have a greater impact on sport leadership than cultural influences. The above line of reasoning is similar to Carron's (1975) argument on the effects of personality predispositions in the athletic context. He argued that "the unique consistency of behavior [in athletics]... is a function of the specific response situation, not of the underlying consistent generalizable personality dispositions of the athletes themselves" (p. 5.4). In the present context, the intensity of the response situation may be seen as overriding the effects of cultural differences. Any research attempting to verify the veracity of the above two viewpoints (i.e., cultural influences versus athletic imperatives hypotheses) should include nations that are sufficiently different from each other in terms of culture. Accordingly, this study chose Japan and Canada for comparative purposes. The cultural differences between the two countries have been well documented (e.g., Franklin, 1981; Hofstede, 1980). Furthermore, the relative effectiveness of Japanese commercial enterprises has been attributed to their culturally based managerial orientations and practices (e.g., England, 1983; Haire, Ghiselli, & Porter, 1966; Hamaguchi, 1981; Matsuura, 1984; Ouchi, 1981; Yamaguchi, 1984). The results of a recent study of sport leadership involving Japanese and Canadian physical education students (Chelladurai et al., 1987) showed that (a) the Japanese physical education students preferred a more supportive leadership than the Canadian physical education students; 0) the Japanese students participating in modem sports preferred more participative decision-making than the Canadian students; and (c) the Japanese students participating in traditional sports such as judo and kendo preferred more of an aloof and authoritarian leadership than either the Canadian students or the Japanese in modern sports. Based on these results, the authors concluded that both the type of sport and the cultural background of the subjects influenced their coaching preferences. The present study extended the earlier work by Chelladurai et al. (1987) in three significant ways. First, the subjects of the present study were university level athletes, not physical education students. It was felt that the impact of the athletic situation can be more adequately tested only with athletes participating at a higher level of excellence. Second the study explored the differences between the two groups of athletes in their perceptions as well as their preferences

4 Japanese and Canadian Athletes for specific coaching behaviors. While athletes' preferences are important in themselves, athletes' perceptions of coaching behaviors and their reactions to those perceptions would have equal if not greater impact on the coaching environment. Therefore it was felt necessary to explore both perceived and preferred leadership. Finally, this study was also concerned with athletes' satisfaction with several aspects of their involvement in sport and with the coach's leadership. All analyses of leadership must ultimately be related to the two significant outcomes of performance and member satisfaction. In the absence of comparable measures of absolute performance, this study included only measures of satisfaction. This is consistent with the assertion that member satisfaction is a more psychologically meaningful outcome than the absolute measures of performance (Chelladurai, 1984). Method The major concerns of any cross-national study center around the notion of comparability of both the subjects and the measurements. This section outlines the steps taken in this study to approximate such comparability. Subjects The subjects of the study were 1 15 Japanese and 100 Canadian male university athletes from one selected university in each country. These two universities were comparable in size, managements, and the emphasis placed on intercollegiate athletics. In order to further ensure comparability, the selection of subjects was restricted to athletes participating in sports that were offered in both universities and in which coaching was offered at least three times a week. The sports included were badminton (n = 10 Japanese and 4 Canadian athletes), basketball (n=7 and 13), hockey (n= 15 and 16), swimming (n= 10 and 12), track and field (n = 36 and 24), volleyball (n =25 and 12), and wrestling (n = 12 and 19). However, the degrees of freedom for different analyses varied due to missing data. The mean age of the Japanese athletes was years (SD=0.96) and that of the Canadian athletes was (SD =2.06). Instrument The instrument consisted of (a) background information questions such as age, sex, sport, and sport experience, (b) the Leadership Scale for Sports (Chelladurai, Imamura, & Yamaguchi, 1985; Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980), and (c) a set of items to elicit athletes' satisfaction with various facets of their involvement in athletics, including satisfaction with leadership. i?ze Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS). The 40-item LSS (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980) measures five dimensions of leader behavior in sport-training and instruction (13 items), democratic behavior (9 items), autocratic behavior (5 items), social support (8 items), and positive feedback (5 items). In the preference varsion of the scale, the items are preceded by the statement "I prefer my coach to..." In the perceived leadership version, the items are preceded by the statement "My coach..." The internal consistency estimates ranged from.45 to.82 (M=.71) in the preferred version and from.79 to.93 (M=.87) in the perceived version (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980).

5 378 1 Chelladurai, imamura, Yamaguchi, Oinuma, and Miyauchi The Japanese athletes responded to the Japanese translation of the LSS described in Chelladurai et al. (1985). These authors retained 38 items of the LSS after a three-stage research involving item analyses of the responses of three different samples of subjects. The two rejected items were from Democratic Behavior and Autocratic Behavior. Reporting internal consistency estimates (Cronbach's alpha) ranging from.66 to.80 (M=.71) in the preference version and.62 to.80 (M=.74) in the perceived version, these authors concluded that the 38-item scale taps highly similar response dimensions in Canadian and Japanese athletes. Based on the above and for the purposes of comparability, the same 38 items were used in both sets of data of this study. The internal consistency estimates for subscales of the LSS computed from the present data for each group (Japanese and Canadian) and for each version (preferred and perceived) are presented in Table 1. They range from.55 to.89, with a mean of.75, and are adequate and comparable to those reported earlier for Japanese subjects (Chelladurai et al., 1985) and for Canadian subjects (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980). However, since the alpha coefficients for Autocratic Behavior are relatively low (<.60) in all sets of data, the results relating to this dimension must be viewed with caution. The approximate symmetry of the distribution of scores (found in Table 4) indicates there is no evidence of a response set toward greater or lesser preference or perception of specific leader behaviors. Satisfaction Scale It is generally agreed that the concept of satisfaction is multifaceted (e.g., Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969). Because leadership is also multifaceted, it is conceivable that athletes could be differentially satisfied with various aspects of leadership such as the coaching, guidance, and support provided by the coach, and the various outcomes of athletic participation that could be associated with leadership such as individual performance and growth, Table 1 Internal Consistency Estimates for LSS Subscales Dimensions Japan Canada Training & instruction (13 items) Democratic behavior (8 items) Autocratic behavior (4 items) Social support (8 items) Positive feedback (5 items) apreferred version; bperceived version.

6 Japanese and Canadian Athletes team performance, and team climate. Accordingly, 18 items were selected to reflect the above elements of leadership. Several were modified from other sources (e.g., Chelladurai, 1984; Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Smith, 1976; Smith et al., 1969; Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). The respondents indicated the degree of their satisfaction with the content of each item on a 7-point scale anchored as extremely dissatisfied, dissatisfied, slightly dissatisfied, neutral, slightly satisfied, satisfied, extremely satisfied. As with the LSS, two independent translations of these items into the Japanese language were compared and incongruent items were modified. The modified version of the scale was administered to a pilot sample of Japanese subjects. The final corrected translation was administered to the Japanese athletes of the present study. Factor analysis (varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization) of the data of the total sample (Japanese and Canadian) showed that the eigenvalues of two factors exceeded unity, and they jointly explained 65.3% of the variance in the data. In order to ensure that the selected items under these two factors should be equally relevant in each of the two subsamples, two factors were extracted in each of the two subsets of the data and the total sample. Only the items loading high in all three two-factor solutions (Japanese, Canadian, and the total) were selected to represent the two factors. These selected items had loadings of not less than.5 on their own factor and higher by at least.2 than their loadings on the irrelevant factor in each of the three solutions. Further, none of the selected items had a loading of more than.4 in the irrelevant factor in any of the three solutions. Finally, the data of the total sample was subjected to a factor analysis including only the selected items. The results of that analysis are presented in Table 2. As before, only two factors had an eigenvalue greater than unity, and they accounted for 78.9% of the total variance. Because all seven items in the first factor related to aspects of leadership, this factor was labeled Leadership. The factor explained 64.9% of the variance, and the internal consistency estimate (Cronbach's alpha) for the subscale was.95. Since the three items in the second factor relate to the personal outcomes experienced by the athlete, this factor was labeled Personal Outcome. It explained an additional 14.1 % of the variance. The internal consistency estimate of this subscale was.86. Analyses Because this study was exploratory in nature, the major emphasis was on the bivariate relationships among the variables of the study. However, since these variables were expected to be correlated, appropriate multivariate analyses were first carried out in order to establish the overall relationships among the relevant sets of variables that would justify subsequent bivariate andlor univariate analyses. Subgroup Di$erences. In order to test the differences between the Japanese and Canadian athletes in (a) preferred leadership, (b) perceived leadership, and (c) satisfaction, a multivariate ANOVA was carried out wherein the above variables were the set of dependent variables and nationality was the independent variable. Since this analysis showed a significant multivariate relationship, univariate ANOVAs were also performed. Leadership and Satisfaction. Prior to assessing the relationships between leadership and athlete satisfaction, two preliminary analyses were carried out.

7 380 1 Chelladurai, Zmarnura, Yamaguchi, Oinuma, and Miyauchi Table 2 Factor Loadings of Selected Satisfaction ltems ltems I Factor II Leadership The leadership provided by my coach How my coach treats me My coach's ability to teach me The guidance provided by my coach The respect and fair treatment I get from my coach How my coach deals with problems The support I get from my coach Personal outcome The way I am performing My personal growth and development My fitness level Eigenvalue % variance explained Cronbach's alpha First, the notion of discrepancy (or congruence) between preferred leadership and perceived leadership is conceptually meaningful (e. g., Chelladurai, 1984; YuM, 1971) and intuitively appealing. In fact, discrepancy scores have been used in predicting athlete satisfaction (Chelladurai, 1984; Home & Canon, 1985). However, the use of derived discrepancy scores has been questioned on several counts (e.g., Cronbach & Furby, 1970; Gardner & Neufeld, 1987; Johns, 1981; Lim & Slinde, 1977). One of the major criticisms is that the discrepancy score may not explain as much variance as one of the two components used to derive that score, especially when those components are provided by a single subject as in the present case. In particular, it has been asserted that "subordinates, [athletes'] perceptions can dominate in those relationships" (White, Crino, & Hatfield, 1985, p. 736). In order to verify whether this occurred in the present data, a multivariate multiple regression analysis was carried out wherein the two satisfaction measures were regressed on the five dimensions of preferred leadership in both sets of data (Japanese and Canadian). These analyses were repeated for perceived leadership and also for the leadership discrepancy scores (preference minus perception). Since each of the multivariate analyses showed that there was a significant relationship between the specified set of leadership variables and the satisfaction measures, univariate multiple regression analyses were carried out to assess the variance accounted for by the independent variables of preferred leadership, perceived leadership, and discrepancy in each satisfaction measure. A summary of the results of these analyses (percent variance and the associated univariate F values) are presented in Table 3.

8 Table 3 Japanese and Canadian Athletes / 381 Variance (Adjusted R2) Accounted for by Sets of Leader Behavior Variables in the Satisfaction Measures Variable set Satisfaction with Satisfaction with leadership personal outcome Japan Canada Japan Canada Preferred leadership Overall F 3.63 * 2.34* 2.31 * 0.95 Adjusted R Perceived leadership Overall F * * 24.98" 4.42*" 2.71 * Adjusted R Discrepancy in leadership Overall F 8.48 * * 22.37*** Adjusted R Perceived leadership consistently explained the greatest amount of variance in each satisfaction score with the exception of Canadian athletes' satisfaction with leadership, where the discrepancy scores explained as much variance (R2 =.57) as the perceived scores. Therefore it was decided to use only the perceived leadership scores as the predictors of athlete satisfaction. This contrasts with Chelladurai's (1984) decision to use the discrepancy scores since he found that the discrepancy scores explained a greater percentage of the variance in athlete satisfaction than did the individual components of preferred and perceived leadership. The second set of preliminary analyses involved a multivariate multiple regression analysis using the perceived leadership variables, nationality, and their interactions as predictors of the set of two satisfaction scores. This was followed by two hierarchical multiple regression analyses-one each for satisfaction with leadership and satisfaction with personal outcome. In both analyses the order of entry was (a) the five perceived leadership dimension scores, (b) nationality, and (c) the interaction terms (Nationality x Leadership dimensions). A dummy variable consisting of + 1 and - 1 values was created to designate the country. The multivariate analysis showed a significant relationship between the two sets of variables, Wilks' lambda=.261, F(22, 384) = 16.74, fl.001. The first univariate regression equation F(11, 193) = , p<.001, explained % of the variance in satisfaction with leadership. The contributions of nationality, F(l, 198) =40.40, 6.001; incremental R2 =.08, and the interaction terms, F(5, 193) =3.87,fl.01; incremental R2 =.04, were significant. Similarly, the second regression equation, F(11, 193) = , 6.001, with all the above terms explained 44.58% of the variance in satisfaction with personal outcome. The contributions of nationality, F(l, 198)=77.53,fl.001, incremental R2=.23, and the interaction terms F(5, 193) =2.32, 6.05, incremental R2 =.03, were significant.

9 382 1 Chelladurai, Zmamura, Yamaguchi, Oinuma, and Miyauchi Because interaction was detected, subgroup analyses were carried out as they provide more information on the magnitude of relationships in the two sets of data (Schriesheim, 1980). First, bivariate correlations between each leadership variable and each satisfaction measure were computed within each group. Then, each of the satisfaction measures was regressed on the perceived leadership scores for each subgroup to (a) assess the total variance explained by the leadership variables in each satisfaction measure, and (b) identify the unique contributions of the leadership variables to the explained variance in the satisfaction measures. Prior to these univariate analyses, however, a multivariate multiple regression was carried out to establish the significance of the overall relationship between the two sets of measures. The descriptive statistics for all the variables are provided in Table 4. Table 4 Means, Standard Deviations and F Values for All Variables Dimensions Japan Canada Univariate F Preferred leadership Training & instruction *** (0.63) (0.42) Democratic behavior (0.74) (0.47) Autocratic behavior * (0.80) (0.61) Social support ** (0.70) (0.59) Positive feedback (0.73) (0.54) Perceived leadership Training & instruction **" (0.78) (0.57) Democratic behavior * (0.81) (0.59) Autocrattc behavior *' (0.80) (0.63) Social support (0.86) (0.68) Positive feedback *' (0.90) (0.78) Satisfaction with Leadership *** (1.20) (1.46) Personal outcome * * (1.26) (1.18) *p<.05;**p<.ol; "*p<.ool.

10 Subgroup Diferences Results Japanese and Canadian Athletes / 383 The results of the MANOVA showed that the Japanese and Canadian athletes differed significantly in preferred leadership, perceived leadership, and satisfactions taken as a set, Wilks' lambda=.476, F(12,183) = 16.78, The means, standard deviations, and the F values from the follow-up univariate analyses are provided in Table 4. The significant effects are outlined below. Preferred Leadership. The Japanese athletes preferred significantly more autocratic behavior (M=2.56) and social support (M=3.41) than the Canadian athletes (M=2.35 and 3.13, respectively). The Canadian athletes preferred significantly more training and instruction (M=4.04) than the Japanese athletes (M= 3.75). There was no significant difference in either preferred democratic behavior or preferred positive feedback. Perceived Leadership. The mean Japanese athletes' perception of their coach's autocratic behavior (M=2.93) was significantly higher than the mean Canadian athletes' perception (M=2.59). The Canadian athletes' perceptions of their coach's training and instruction (M= 3.69), democratic behavior (M= 3.00), and positive feedback (M=3.81) were significantly higher than the Japanese athletes' perceptions (M=3.26, 2.79, and 3.50, respectively). There was no significant difference in perceived social support. Satisfaction. The Canadian athletes expressed significantly more satisfaction than the Japanese athletes with both leadership (M=5.49 vs. 4.02) and personal outcome (M=5.12 vs. 3.38). Perceived Leadership and Satisfaction The two multivariate multiple regression analyses involving the two satisfaction measures (dependent variables) and the perceived leadership variables (predictor set) showed a significant relationship for the Japanese data, Wilks' lambda=.501, F(10, 216)=8.91, p<.001, and for the Canadian data, Wilks' lambda=.357, F(10, 166) = 11.17, p<.001. The F values, the beta weights, and the adjusted R2 values from the four follow-up univariate regression analyses (satisfaction with leadership and satisfaction with personal outcome for each subgroup) are shown in Table 5. The bivariate correlation coefficients between the satisfaction measures and the perceived leadership dimensions are also provided in Table 5. Satisfaction With Leadership. All the leadership variables were significantly correlated with the criterion variable (p<.001) in both sets of the data. Overall, the higher the perceived behavior in all dimensions of leader behavior except autocratic behavior, the higher the satisfaction with leadership. In the case of autocratic behavior, the lower the perceived behavior, the higher the satisfaction. The leadership variables jointly explained 41 % and 57% of the variance in the Japanese and Canadian data, respectively. However, only the unique contributions of training and instruction (B=.33, p<.01) and autocratic behavior (B= -.23, 6.01) in the Japanese data, and those of training and instruction (B=.28, p<.01) and positive feedback (B=.37,6.001) in the Canadian data, were significant.

11 384 I Chelladurai, Imamura, Yamaguchi, Oinuma, and Miyauchi Table 5 Relationships Between Perceived Leader Behaviors and Satisfaction Measures Satisfaction with leadership Training & instruction Democratic behavior Autocratic behavior Social support Positive feedback Overall F Adjusted R2 Satisfaction with personal outcome Training & instruction Democratic behavior Autocratic behavior Social support Positive feedback Overall F Adjusted R2 Japan Canada r Beta r Beta Satisfaction With Personal Outcome. In the Japanese data, satisfaction with personal outcome was significantly correlated with all perceived leadership dimensions except positive feedback. In the case of Canadian athletes, however, it was significantly correlated with only perceived training and instruction. The leadership variables jointly explained 13 % and 9 % of the variance in the Japanese and Canadian data, respectively. The unique contribution of social support to the explained variance in satisfaction with personal outcome was significant in the Japanese subgroup (B =.33,p<.05). In the case of the Canadian subgroup, the unique contribution of training and instruction was significant (B=.38,p<.01). Discussion This study was concerned with verifying the efficacy of two differing viewpoints regarding sport leadership in cross-national settings. The first perspective, the cultural-influence perspective, suggests that leadership would be divergent among nations because of the effects of cultural differences. The second viewpoint, the athletic-imperatives perspective, suggests that the intensity of the demands of the athletic situation would entail a convergence in leadership across nations. When the three sets of variables-preferred leadership, perceived leadership, and satisfactions-are viewed independent of each other, there are signifi-

12 Japanese and Canadian Athletes cant differences between the two groups of athletes. For instance, the Japanese athletes preferred more of an autocratic and socially supportive leadership than did the Canadian athletes, who preferred more of training and instruction. The differences in perceived leader behaviors also showed a trend toward divergence. That is. Canadian athletes ~erceived their coaches to be more democratic and to be emphasizing training and positive feedback (i.e., a task oriented leadership) more than did the Japanese, who perceived their coaches to be more autocratic. Finally, the Canadian athletes expressed greater satisfaction with both leadership and personal outcome than did the ~apanese athletes. Divergence was also evident in the relationships between leadership variables and satisfaction with personal outcome. All perceived leader behaviors except positive feedback were significantly correlated with satisfaction with persoa outcome in the ~a~anese data. In the Canadian data, however, only the correlation of training and instruction was significant. Some support for the divergence hypothesis is also found in the results of the multiple regression analyses. A larger percent of the variance in satisfaction with leadership was explained by the leadership variables in the Canadian data (RZ=.60) than in the Japanese data (R2=.41). Also, while the unique contribution of training and instruction to the explained variance was significant in both sets of data, the contribution of autocratic behavior was also significant in the Japanese data, and that of positive feedback in the Canadian data. The above subgroup differences, taken cumulatively, are supportive of the cultural-influence (divergence) hypothesis. However, such a conclusion must be tempered by other results suggestive of convergence in leadership across these two groups. For instance, the perceptions relative to preferences within each group were significantly lower in all dimensions except autocratic behavior. That is, although the absolute scores of preferences and perceptions of these two groups of athletes may be different, there is a remarkable similarity in the discrepancies between the preferences and corresponding perceptions. Another result supportive of the convergence hypothesis is the equally strong correlations between each of the perceived leader behaviors and satisfaction with leadership in both sets of data. The finding that the Japanese athletes preferred an autocratic and socially supportive leadership more than the Canadian athletes is consistent with earlier literature (Chelladurai et al., 1987; Matsuura, 1984; Yamaguchi, 1984). On the other hand, the Canadian athletes' significantly greater preferences for a performance oriented leadership (i.e., emphasizing training and providing performancerelated feedback) is contrary to an earlier finding that the Japanese in modem sports were Slmilar to the Canadians in these preferences (Chelladurai et al., 1987). But it must be borne in mind that the subjects of the earlier study were physical education students whereas the subjects of the present study were athletes. It is interesting to note that both the Japanese and Canadian athletes were similar in not associakg leadership with their personal outcome to any appreciable extent (RZ being only 13 % and 11 %, respectively). This is similar to Chelladurai's (1984) finding that satisfaction with individual performance was unrelated to leadership. However, it must be noted that, in the present study, satisfaction with individual performance was only one of three items in the satisfaction-withpersonal-outcome subscale.

13 386 / Chelladurai, Zmamura, Yamaguchi, Oinuma, and Miyauchi Overall, these patterns of preferences and perceptions point to differential emphases on an autocratic and supportive leadership by the Japanese, and on a democratic and task oriented leadership by the Canadians. But there is no indication as to how these contrasting patterns of leadership affect team performance in a cross-national context. In the North American context, it has been reported that coaches' supportive behavior has been negatively related to team performance (Chelladurai, 1978; Weiss & Friedrichs, 1986). As for the Japanese, it has been suggested that socially supportive leadership is consistent with the traditional Japanese emphasis on cohesive and harmonious groups (Chelladurai et al., 1987; Reischauer, 1977). However, a critical question is whether such leadership enhances team performance. Although this study did not utilize any performance measures per se, an attempt was made to measure satisfaction with team performance, which may be considered a surrogate measure of performance itself. Unfortunately, however, the factor analysis did not yield a factor relating to satisfaction with team performance. It is important that future research efforts be directed at relating the leadership patterns with objective and/or subjective measures of performance of teams in the two nations. Another concern is with the moderating effects of task type on the relationships between leadership and desired outcomes (House, 1971; House & Dessler, 1974). In fact, it has been shown in the Canadian context that the attributes of task variability and/or task dependence affect differentially the preferences and perceptions of leader behavior (Chelladurai, 1984; Chelladurai & Carron, 1981; Chelladurai & Saleh, 1978; Terry & Howe, 1984), and athlete satisfaction (Chelladurai, 1984). It is important to verify whether such differential effects of task dimensions would prevail in a cross-national context. The small number of subjects in the various sports did not permit such analyses in the present study. Future research may address this important issue. In a similar vein, gender differences in leadership preferences have also been reported in the Canadian context (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1978; Erle, 1981). Further, Terry (1984) found gender differences in preferred leadership among athletes from different nations similar in culture and sporting ideologies. A useful line of investigation would be to verify whether such gender differences are evident in the context of nations of contrasting cultures, in relation to both preferred and perceived leadership and their relationships to outcome variables. On a different note, it is encouraging that the internal consistency estimates for the subscales of the translated LSS were relatively high and comparable to such estimates from other sources. Similarly, great confidence can be placed on the two measures of satisfaction used in the present study since (a) the criteria for the selection of the items were stringent, (b) the factor loadings of the items were quite high, and (c) the internal consistency estimates were also very high. However, it is unfortunate that separate factors of satisfaction with the team itself and its performance did not emerge. Also, the expectation that satisfaction with leadership could be factored into various aspects of leadership did not materialize. Future research may invoke more elaborate design and methods to develop a comprehensive scale with subscales to measure satisfaction with various aspects of athletic involvement including leadership and team performance. It must be noted that a useful start has been made in this regard by Weiss and Friedrichs (1986), who modified the items in the Index of Organizational Reactions (Smith,

14 Japanese and Canadian Athletes I ) for use in the athletic context and derived the six subscales of supervision, playing conditions, teammates, amount of work, kind of work, and school identification. A final note on the intermingling of cultures within one nation: This study required the two groups of athletes to indicate their preferences and perceptions in their respective cultural contexts, and relative to the coaches from their own culture. However, it is becoming more prevalent that foreigners are hired to coach indigenous teams and/or foreign athletes are recruited to play for local teams. This interplay of differing cultures within one country and within one team presents an interesting and intriguing avenue for investigation. Future research may verify whether athletes' preferences would differ when their coach is from another culture or whether the coaches would vary their behavior when they coach athletes of a different culture. In summary, this study was concerned with cross-national comparison of Japanese and Canadian varsity athletes with regard to their preferred and perceived leadership and satisfactions. While the results of several analyses were supportive of the cultural-influence (divergence) hypothesis, a few results would indicate support for the athletic-imperatives (convergence) hypothesis. Future replications of this study or similar studies should provide additional insights in this regard. References Carron, A.V. (1975). Personality and athletics: A review. In B.S. Rushall (Ed.). The status of psychomotor learning and sport psychology research (pp ). Dartmouth, Nova Scotia: Sports Science Associates. Chelladurai, P. (1978). A contingency model of leadership in athletics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Management Sciences, University of Waterloo. Chelladurai, P. (1984). Discrepancy between preferences and perceptions of leadership behavior and satisfaction of athletes in varying sports. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, Chelladurai, P., & Carron, A.V. (1978). Leadership. Ottawa: Canadian Association of Health, Physical Education and Recreation. Chelladurai, P., & Carron, A.V. (1981). Task characteristics and individual differences, and their relationship to preferred leadership in sports. Psychology of motor behavior und 87). College Park, MD: NASPSPA. Chelladurai, P., Imamura, H., & Yamaguchi, Y. (1985, August). Subscale structure of the LRadership Scale for Sports in the Japanese context: Aprelimina~y report. Paper presented at the FISU/World University Games Conference, Kobe, Japan. Chelladurai, P., Malloy, D., Imamura, H., & Yamaguchi, Y. (1987). A cross-cultural study of preferred leadership in sports. Canadian Journal of Sport Sciences, 12, Chelladurai, P., & Saleh, S.D. (1978). Preferred leadership in sports. Canadian Jouml of Applied Sport Sciences, 3, Chelladurai, P., & Saleh, S.D. (1980). Dimensions of leader behavior in sports: Development of a leadership scale. Jouml of Sport Psychology, 2, Child, J., & Tayeb, M. (1983). Theoretical perspectives in cross-national research. Znternational Studies of Management and Organization, XU (4),

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16 Japanese and Canadian Athletes Smith, P., Kendall, L.M., & Hulin, C.L. (1969). me measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement. Chicago: Rand-McNally. Terry, P.C. (1984). The coaching preferences of elite athletes competing at Universiade '83. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 9, Terry, P.C., & Howe, B.L. (1984). Coaching preferences of athletes. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 9, Weiss, D.J., Dawis, R.V., England, G.W., & Lofquist, L.H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1n-' dustrial Relations Center. Weiss, M.R., & Friedrichs, W.D. (1986). The influence of leader behaviors, coach attributes, and institutional variables on performance and satisfaction of collegiate basketball teams. Jounurl of Sport Psychology, 8, White, M.C., Crino, M.D., & Hatfield, J.D. (1985). An empirical examination of the parsimony of perceptual congruence scores. Academy of Management Journal, 28, Yamaguchi, Y. (1984). Socialization into physical activity in corporate settings: A comparison of Japan and Canada. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Waterloo. Yukl, G. (1971). Toward a behavioral theory of leadership. Organizational Behavior and Human Pe$onnance, 6, The participation of P. Chelladurai was made possible by a leave fellowship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Manuscript submitted: September 30, 1987 Revision received: January 12, 1988