SENSE OF COMMUNITY AMONG ADOLESCENTS PARTICIPATING IN THE MOBILE YOUTH SURVEY: A MEASUREMENT STUDY RANDOLPH STACER DEVEREAUX

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1 SENSE OF COMMUNITY AMONG ADOLESCENTS PARTICIPATING IN THE MOBILE YOUTH SURVEY: A MEASUREMENT STUDY by RANDOLPH STACER DEVEREAUX DIANE M. GRIMLEY, COMMITTEE CHAIR JOHN M. BOLLAND H. RUSSELL FOUSHEE JOSEPH E. SCHUMACHER STUART L. USDAN A DISSERTATION Submitted to the graduate faculty of The University of Alabama at Birmingham, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA 2010

2 Copyright by Randolph Stacer Devereaux 2010

3 SENSE OF COMMUNITY AMONG ADOLESCENTS PARTICIPATING IN THE MOBILE YOUTH SURVEY: A MEASUREMENT STUDY RANDOLPH STACER DEVEREAUX HEALTH EDUCATION AND HEALTH PROMOTION ABSTRACT A measurement study was conducted to evaluate 11 items representing the latent variable labeled sense of community (SOC) employed by investigators of the Mobile Youth Survey (MYS). In previous research the 11 items representing the concept of SOC have been combined to form a composite variable, assuming that the concept was best represented by a single factor (e.g., Bolland, Bryant, Lian, McCallum, Vazsonyi & Barth, 2007). However, no systematic analysis has been conducted to determine the psychometric properties of the 11-item composite variable. The objects of the present study are a) to determine the component structure of the items used to assess SOC among participants of the MYS study across nine years of data collection using principal component analysis procedures; b) to determine the inter-item reliability of the final component solution(s); and c) to establish preliminary validity of the component(s) that emerge by examining convergent and discriminant relationships between the component(s) and MYS psychosocial concepts and behavioral variables. Principal component analysis of data with the total sample demonstrated that a well-saturated, seven-item, two-component structure underlies the 11 items. One threeitem component, labeled Individuality, represents respondent perception and judgment of the neighborhood and its social environment. These items demonstrated low levels of internal consistency however, and were not tested further. The other, four-item component, labeled Mutuality, represents friendships and relationships with others in the iii

4 neighborhood and demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity. Additional analyses demonstrated that the two-component structure remained stable with all subsamples (i.e., both genders and five age categories). Construct validity of the Mutuality scale was supported by mostly significant correlations with selected MYS psychosocial and mental health variables in the predicted directions with the exception of violent behaviors, which may reflect the need for re-examining the role of violence among adolescents in such socially disorganized environments more than raise concerns about the validity of the Mutuality scale. These data support the use of the Mutuality scale as a valid and reliable measure of SOC. Research that employs this measure is needed to determine its utility in studies of SOC. Keywords: adolescents, community, construct validity, Mobile Youth Survey, principal component analysis, sense of community iv

5 DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Rosa Rider Devereaux. She has been my hero and inspiration throughout my life. She always encouraged my pursuit of education. Mom, I am proud to be your son! v

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS No one achieves very much in life without a lot of assistance from others. I have so many people in my life to thank for their contribution to my career, education and quality of life. I thank the members of my dissertation committee, Drs. Diane Grimley, John Bolland, Russ Foushee, Joe Schumacher and Stuart Usdan for their commitment to my education and career. I thank past and present faculty of the Department of Health Behavior including Drs. Jalie Tucker, Connie Kohler, Susan Davies, Brad Lian and Huey Chen. I also thank Ms. Julie Brown and Ms. Rhonda Underwood for their efforts on my behalf over the years. I offer special thanks to Ms. Susan Chandler for her friendship, mentorship and guidance during my years at UAB. I thank Drs. Mike Smith, David Parish, and Harold Katner of the Department of Internal Medicine at Mercer University School of Medicine. I owe many thanks to the late Dr. Murray Vincent, my mentor at the University of South Carolina, for the many opportunities that he afforded me during my masters program. I am thankful to the following mentors and teachers for their contribution to my education and career including Dr. Howell Wechsler, my mentor during my CDC internship; the late Dr. Bob Styons of Macon State College, Dr. Joseph Hammock, my friend and advisor at the University of Georgia; Dr. Keegan Greenier, one of my best friends and a dedicated teacher/scientist in the Department of Psychology at Mercer vi

7 University; Pat Jenkins and the late Dr. Joe Hill of Tattnall Square Academy in Macon, GA; Dr. Belinda Reininger, who directed my masters thesis at the University of South Carolina; Dr. Brad Lian of the University of Alabama, a dedicated researcher who is always willing to help whenever a student needs him; Dr. Henry Wang and Shannon Stephens of the UAB Department of Emergency Medicine and Paul Wolf of the UAB Survey Research Unit. I give thanks to God and his Son, Jesus Christ, for the blessings in my life. I am so grateful to my parents, Rosa Rider Devereaux and the late Geddie Stacer Devereaux, Jr, my brother Marcus as well as my cousin Bayne Meeks. I am also thankful to my aunt Cora Lee Meeks and uncle Billy Meeks, my aunt, the late Georgia Rider and my grandmother, the late Bertha Louise Devereaux. I would also like to thank all of my cousins on the Meeks side of the family for letting me be considered a part of their immediate family. I thank my aunt, the late Ann Devereaux, my uncle, the late Bill Devereaux, and my aunt, Joyce Devereaux. I want to thank Kathy Affolter and her husband, the late Robert Affolter for their support throughout my life. I thank my great friends, Alan, Julie and Olivia Deese, Cecil Anderson, Allen, Sonya, Ciara and Celena McCarty, Robert Cornutt, Supriya Reddy, Chad Bevan, Aseem Bharat, Jennifer White, Rebekah Smith, and Caroline Dobai for their support over the years. I thank Tina Lucas for her help with formatting and editing my dissertation. I want to extend a very special thanks to Tracie Devereaux, Shirley Smith, Barry Smith and Carolyn Hess for their love and support. I am thankful to U2 for providing the soundtrack for my life and for my canine and feline companions over the years: Sam, Puppy, Trixie, Mosey Paws, Honey, Cosmo, Prissi, Bassie and Chance. vii

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT... iii DEDICATION... v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS... vi LIST OF TABLES... xi LIST OF FIGURES... xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS... xvi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION... 1 Sense of Community: Theoretical Underpinnings and Empirical Support... 2 Sense of Community Remains Under-Explored in Disadvantaged Populations... 3 The MYS May Inform Our Understanding of Sense of Community... 3 Statement of Purpose... 5 Research Questions... 5 Significance of the Study REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE... 7 Development of the Sense of Community Concept... 7 Historical Context of Community Studies... 9 Early Sense of Community Studies Sense of Community Theory Sense of Community Index Limitations of the Sense of Community Index Revised or New Sense of Community Indexbased Measures Summary of Research With Adults Measuring Sense of Community Among Youth Neighborhood Youth Inventory Relevance of Sense of Community Construct for Children and Adolescents A Renewed Interest in Social Processes in Neighborhood Research viii

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page Conclusions From a Review of the Literature METHODOLOGY Research Questions...29 Approval by the Institutional Review Board...29 Overview of the Parent Study: The Mobile Youth Survey...30 Research Sites Target Neighborhoods Survey Questions Sampling Design Recruiting Procedures Survey Administration Sites Survey Procedures Initial Development of Mobile Youth Survey Sense of Community Items...37 Planned Analyses for the Present Study...39 Phase 1: Principal Component Analysis and Internal Consistency...39 Steps for Principal Component Analysis Internal Consistency...43 Properties of a Retained Component...43 Summary of Planned Initial Principal Component Analyses...44 Age and Gender Analysis Plan...47 Demographics...48 Phase 2: Validity...48 Planned Analyses for Construct Validity...50 Exclusion of Inconsistent Responses RESULTS Demographics...60 Frequency of Responses to 11 Sense of Community Items...61 Phase 1: Principal Component Analysis (PCA),Parallel Analysis (PA) and Internal Consistency...62 PCA and PA with Total Sample...62 Labeling the Components...77 Internal Consistency and Descriptive Statistics...79 PCA with Male and Female Samples...79 PCA with MYS Respondents Grouped by Age...84 ix

10 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page Phase 2: Validity...94 School Sense of Community and Mutuality...95 Hopelessness and Mutuality...95 Code of the Street Attitudes and Mutuality...96 Warmth toward Mother Figure and Mutuality...97 Fighting and Mutuality...98 Stopping Others from Fighting and Mutuality...98 Carrying a Weapon (Gun or Knife) and Mutuality...99 Carrying a Knife and Mutuality Threatened With a Weapon and Mutuality Bivariate Correlations Age and Mutuality Neighborhood Differences in Sense of Community Neighborhood Classification and Sense of Community DISCUSSION Principal Components Analysis and Reliability Estimates Construct Validity Considerations for Further Scale Development Strengths of the Study Limitations of the Study Conclusion LIST OF REFERENCES APPENDIX: IRB APPROVAL LETTERS x

11 Table LIST OF TABLES Pages 1 Demographic Comparisons of Mobile Youth Survey Field Sites, State of Alabama and United States, American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates Description of Mobile Youth Survey Target Neighborhoods: 2000 Census Selected Variables and/or Constructs Measured by the Mobile Youth Survey MYS Items Measuring Sense of Community/Neighborhood Connectedness School Sense of Community Scale Hopelessness Scale Code of the Street Scale Warmth Toward Mother Figure Scale Violence Behaviors Demographic Characteristics of Cohorts, SOC Items With Range of Frequencies for Agree Responses, Sample Size, Measures of Sample Adequacy and Component Characteristics of PCA With No Components Specified, Component Loadings for PCA With No Components Specified for 11 Sense of Community Items, xi

12 Table Pages 14 Communalities of a PCA With No Components Specified, Parallel Analyses of 11 Sense of Community Items for Years Sample Size, Measures of Sample Adequacy and Component Characteristics of a PCA With One Component Specified, Component Loadings of a PCA With One Component Specified for 11 Sense of Community Items, Communalities of a PCA With One Component Specified, Sample Size, Measures of Sample Adequacy and Component Characteristics of PCA With Two Components Specified, Component Loadings of a PCA With Two Components Specified for 11 Sense of Community Items, Communalities of a PCA With Two Components Specified, Sample Size, Measures of Sample Adequacy and Component Characteristics of a PCA With Two Components Specified for the Final Solution, Component Loadings of a PCA with Two Components Specified for the Final Solution and Estimates of Internal Constancy for Seven Sense of Community Items, Communalities of the Extracted Components of a PCA with Two Components Specified for the Final Solution, Mutuality Component Individuality Component...78 xii

13 Table Pages 27 Descriptive Statistics for the Mutuality and Individuality Components, Component Loadings of a PCA With Two Components Specified for the Final Solution, Females, Component Loadings of a PCA With Two Components Specified for the Final Solution, Males, Comparison of Items Loading on Mutuality and Individuality for the Total, Male and Female Samples Component Loadings of a PCA With Two Components Specified for the Final Solution, Ages, 9 11, Component Loadings of a PCA With Two Components Specified for the Final Solution, Ages,12 13, Component Loadings of a PCA With Two Components Specified for the Final Solution, Ages,14 15, Component Loadings of a PCA With Two Components Specified for the Final Solution, Ages, Component Loadings of a PCA With Two Components Specified for the Final Solution, Ages, 18 19, Fixed Effect Estimates for Linear Mixed Model: School Sense of Community and Mutuality Fixed Effects Estimates for Linear Mixed Model: Hopelessness and Mutuality Fixed Effects Estimates for Linear Mixed Model: Code of the Street Attitudes and Mutuality Fixed Effects Estimates for Linear Mixed Model: Warmth Toward Mother Figure and Mutuality Fixed Effects Estimates for Linear Mixed Model: Fighting and Mutuality...98 xiii

14 Table Pages 41 Fixed Effects Estimates for Linear Mixed Model: Stopping Others from Fighting and Mutuality Fixed Effects Estimates for Linear Mixed Model: Carrying a Weapon and Mutuality Fixed Effects Estimates for Linear Mixed Model: Carrying a Knife and Mutuality Fixed Effects Estimates for Linear Mixed Model: Threatened With a Weapon and Mutuality Bivariate Correlation Coefficients between Mutuality and Psychosocial Concepts and Behavioral Variables Measured by the MYS Growth Curve Model for Sense of Community Mixed Model for SOC and Neighborhood Differences xiv

15 Figure LIST OF FIGURES Page 1 Latent Growth Curve Analysis: Mutuality by Age xv

16 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BSCI BSCS CFA COS DV LGCM ICC IV ISCS Brief Sense of Community Index Brief Sense of Community Scale confirmatory factor analysis code of the street dependent variable latent growth curve model intraclass correlation independent variable Italian Sense of Community Scale K1 Kaiser rule of extracting eigenvalues greater than 1 KMO Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy KR20 Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 MSA MYS NCI NYI PA PCA PSOC SCI metropolitan statistical area Mobile Youth Survey Neighborhood Cohesion Instrument Neighborhood Youth Inventory parallel analysis principal component analysis psychological sense of community Sense of Community Index xvi

17 SCP SOC Sense of Community Profile sense of community xvii

18 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION A measurement study was conducted to evaluate 11 items representing the latent variable labeled sense of community (SOC) employed by investigators of the Mobile Youth Survey (MYS). The MYS is an ongoing community-based, multiple cohort, longitudinal study of 10,500 youth (ages 9-19) living in low-income neighborhoods in Mobile and Prichard, Alabama (Bolland, 2007; Bolland, Bryant, Lian, McCallum, Vazsonyi & Barth, 2007; Bolland, Lian & Formichella, 2005; Bolland, McCallum, Lian, Bailey & Rowan, 2001). Few studies of adolescent SOC have been conducted in the United States with disadvantaged populations limiting our understanding of how youth perceive and are affected by their communities. In previous research using the MYS, the 11 items representing the concept of SOC have been combined to form a composite variable, suggesting that the concept was best represented by a single factor. Based on this assumption, studies conducted by the researchers have found statistically significant associations between psychosocial and behavioral variables as well as differences in responses between neighborhoods (Bolland et al., 2007). However, to date, no systematic analysis has been conducted to determine the psychometric properties of the 11-item composite variable. The objects of the present study are a) to determine the component structure of the items used to assess SOC among participants of the MYS study across nine years of data collection using principal component analysis procedures; b) to determine the inter-item consistency 1

19 (reliability) of the final component solution(s); and, c) to establish some preliminary validity of the component(s) that emerge representing the concept of SOC by examining convergent and discriminant relationships with MYS psychosocial concepts and behavioral variables. Validation of a SOC scale for assessing disadvantaged African American youth may provide community researchers with an instrument to measure a community process that is an indicator of an adolescent s social environment and psychosocial development. Sense of Community: Theoretical Underpinnings and Empirical Support SOC has emerged over the last 36 years as a robust community-related concept. The SOC construct has been developed from both a theoretical (Hill, 1996; McMillan & Chavis, 1986; Sarason, 1974) and an empirical perspective (Chipuer & Pretty, 1999; Perkins, Florin, Rich, Wandersman & Chavis, 1990), measured in geographical (Glynn, 1981; Nasar & Julian, 1995; Obst, Zinkiewicz & Smith, 2002) and relational communities at both the individual (Lounsbury, Loveland & Gibson, 2003) and community level, studied as a predictor and an outcome variable, found to be relevant for samples of adults and youth (Albanesi, Cicognani & Zani, 2007; Garcia, Giulian & Wesenfeld, 1999; Pooley, Pike, Drew & Breen, 2002 ; Zani, Cicognani & Albanesi, 2001) and linked theoretically and empirically to other community processes such as social capital (Perkins & Long, 2002), cohesion (Buckner, 1988; Wilkinson, 2007), social disorganization (Cantillon, Davidson & Schweitzer, 2003) and neighboring (Skjaeveland, Garling & Maeland, 1996). Emergence of the SOC concept has coincided with an increased interest in the influences of ecology, social environments and social 2

20 determinants on human health (physical and psychological) and life-span development. SOC has, therefore, been proposed as a key concept in community development programming and evaluation (Chavis & Wandersman, 1990; Perkins, et al., 1990; Plas & Lewis, 1996). SOC has also been proposed as the principal theme for the field of community psychology and as a concept that encapsulates the central tenets of community-based and community development approaches in public health such as empowerment and civic participation (Minkler & Wallerstein, 1999; Sarason, 1974). Sense of Community Remains Under-Explored in Disadvantaged Populations Despite advances in theory and measurement, several lines of inquiry remain under-explored including the relationship between neighborhood SOC and the development and well-being of children and adolescents (Pretty, 2002; Pretty, Andrewes & Collett, 1994; Pretty, Conroy, Dugay, Fowler, Williams, 1996). A review of the literature indicated that few, if any, studies have been conducted on these relationships with disadvantaged African American youth. The dearth of studies has limited the potential use of the SOC construct in health promotion planning, programming and evaluation as well as limited our understanding of the effects that communities may have on the health of their residents and the mechanisms that produce these effects. The MYS May Inform Our Understanding of Sense of Community In order to address the need for additional studies to better operationalize and measure the latent variable labeled sense of community and to identify and address some of the potential theoretical, methodological, and contextual limitations of existing 3

21 data addressing this construct, it was hypothesized that data from the ongoing longitudinal community-based study, the MYS, may better inform our understanding of how SOC is conceptualized among youth, especially those living in extremely lowincome neighborhoods with an African American majority. Previous MYS studies provide preliminary evidence for a SOC scale (Bolland et al, 2007). The MYS was designed to identify the individual-, family-, and communitylevel risk and protective factors that affect the physical, mental, behavioral and social development of youth living in poverty (Bolland, 2007). Since its inception in 1998, the MYS has included 11 items aimed to measure the level of connectedness youth experience towards their neighbors and neighborhood (Bolland, 2007). The items were selected originally from previously established measures of SOC that had been validated with adult populations but had content or face validity for use with youth (Bachrach & Zautra, 1985; Glynn, 1981; Perkins, et al., 1990). Survey questions included I have friends in my neighborhood who know they can depend on me, I have friends in my neighborhood I can depend on and I feel I am an important part of my neighborhood. MYS researchers have combined these dichotomous response items to form a scale (range 0-11) as a measure of SOC and have reported moderate levels of reliability (range across six waves of data) that are appropriate for social science research and non-clinical application (Bolland et al., 2005; 2007). The composite variable has been significantly associated with other MYS constructs and behaviors including hopelessness, violence, and engaging in sexual intercourse, providing some preliminary support for construct validity of the scale (Bolland et al., 2005, 2007). Statistically significant differences in scale scores have been determined between MYS 4

22 neighborhoods, racial status (i.e., identified as single- vs. mixed- race) and year of cohort survey administration (i.e., early cohorts vs. later cohorts; Bolland et al., 2007). These findings provided the impetus for the current measurement study. Statement of Purpose The purpose of this study was to determine the psychometric properties of 11 items included in the MYS proposed to measure a SOC with study participants. Thus, the specific aims were: 1. To determine the component structure of the 11 items. 2. To estimate the inter-item consistency of the resulting components(s). 3. To ascertain if items in the final component solution were reliable 4. To ascertain the validity of the final component solution using convergent and discriminant relationships with other psychosocial and behavioral variables within the MYS. Research Questions The study addressed three questions related to determining the component structure, internal consistency, and construct validity of the final SOC measure. 1. How does the SOC component structure in the following contexts? a. How many components underlie the 11 items? i. when both genders and participants of all ages are included? ii. when the participants are analyzed separately by gender? iii. when the participants are grouped by age? 5

23 b. Does the combination of items for components differ? i. by age? ii. by gender? 2. Are the items within the combined scale and any determined components internally consistent? 3. Is the combined SOC measure valid for MYS participants who live in selected lowincome inner-city neighborhoods in Alabama? Significance of the Study This study examined the psychometric properties of the 11 SOC items from the MYS administered to primarily (95%) African American youth, living in low-income, inner-city neighborhoods. To our knowledge, few, if any, measures assessing SOC had been evaluated with youth living in neighborhoods with such high poverty and disorganization levels as participants in the ongoing MYS study. Although previous studies have provided some initial evidence of validity for the MYS composite variable (Bolland et al., 2005, 2007), to date no systematic validation study had been conducted. The primary objective of this study was to determine the psychometric properties of a measure that assesses SOC in the MYS ongoing community-based research study. The findings of this study may inform future investigations using the MYS and may advance our understanding of how SOC is conceptualized by primarily African American, disadvantaged youth within socially disorganized communities in the South. 6

24 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The following literature review will describe the background and rationale for conducting a measurement study of 11 items aimed to measure a SOC among youth living in low-income neighborhoods with an African American majority. The MYS, an ongoing longitudinal study of 10,500 youth (ages 9-19) provided an opportunity to measure SOC within an environment that exhibits high levels of social disorganization. If validated, the 11 items could be combined to form a scale for measuring SOC in this under-explored population and context. This review will briefly describe the theoretical and measurement development for the SOC construct among adult, adolescent and child populations that informed the development of the current study. Development of the Sense of Community Concept In 1974, Sarason challenged the emerging field of community psychology to find a conceptual center to guide its research and practice. He proposed the adoption of a concept he believed to be a constant theme in the lives of modern people: the search for a psychological sense of community (PSOC). Like many of his community-minded predecessors, Sarason believed that the processes of modernity had loosened the social ties that had once successfully integrated individuals into a supportive network which he argued is needed for a person to become a well-adjusted member of society. Reminiscent of Durkheim s work on social integration and suicide in the nineteenth century, Sarason 7

25 believed a lack of a PSOC to be the most destructive dynamic in the lives of people in our society. (p. 96) He proposed the study and development of SOC as the most important role for the new discipline. He described PSOC as the sense that one was part of a readily available, mutually supportive network of relationships upon which one could depend (p. 1) He also listed specific elements of PSOC that included: the perception of similarity to others, an acknowledged interdependence with others, a willingness to maintain this interdependence by giving to or doing for others what one expects from them, and the feeling that one is part of a larger dependable and stable structure. (Sarason, 1974, p. 157) Sarason s definition reflected individual perceptions and behaviors as well as extraindividual characteristics of community. Moreover, Sarason s conceptualization of SOC influenced its theoretical and measurement development by framing it as a prosocial value-laden judgment that he believed would not be amenable to traditional methods of measurement in psychology. Sarason s skepticism of traditional methods for measuring SOC was reminiscent of the difficulty that social scientists generally had with defining the concept of community itself. He explained: it does not sound precise, it obviously reflects a value judgment and does not sound compatible with hard science. It is a phrase which is associated in the minds of many psychologists with a kind of maudlin togetherness, a tear-soaked emotional drippiness that misguided do-gooders seek to experience. (Sarason, 1974, pp ) However, he felt that SOC is such a fundamental human phenomenon that you know it when you have it and when you don t. (Sarason, 1974, p.157) 8

26 Historical Context of Community Studies Sarason s view of a modernity-induced and pervasive loss of community has been a common theme that has shaped the discourse and study of community concepts among researchers and theorists since the mid nineteenth century (Gusfield, 1975; Nisbet, 1953). Durkheim, Tonnies, Weber and Marx were among the first to describe changes in social bonds caused by the democratic and industrial revolutions in Europe and the United States (Lyon, 1987). The industrial revolution led to rapid urbanization, increased heterogeneity of the population and division of labor. The democratic revolutions promoted the ideas of philosophical liberalism, individual rights and equality developed during the Enlightenment. Together, these changes along with the rise of capitalism began to alter the nature of social ties away from attachments based on traditional dimensions of organization such as kinship, village, and church to more rational- or transaction-based dimensions, especially those related to commerce. Tonnies (1887/1988) described this shift as moving from strongly cohesive community-based relationships to diverse society-based relationships that guide the underlying moral order. Early theorists believed these fundamental changes promoted an individualism that subsequently resulted in a loss of the strong social cohesion and social organization that had functioned to develop, maintain and regulate the roles, expectations and norms of individuals in societies (Durkheim, 1952, 1964; Durkheim, Solovay, Mueller & Catlin, 1938). Theorists of this era also believed that the loss of community and tradition resulted in a sense of isolation, alienation and normlessness (i.e., anomie) that affected individuals physical and mental health and quality of life. Durkheim (1952) was one of the first to document that suicide rates were a function of the level of integration and 9

27 normative regulation that was present in or provided by social groups or places. He emphasized the need for social structures and institutions to provide cohesive relationships in what he perceived as an ever increasing individualistic society. Most works by early scholars could be summarized as a sentiment of loss and lament over the rapid changes and weakening traditions observed (Gusfield, 1975; Lyon, 1987; Nisbet, 1953). Community (Gemeinschaft) became a concept that was contrasted with broader society (Gessellschaft). Community became associated with a romanticized nostalgia for traditional sources of social order, whereas society was considered impersonal and viewed with trepidation (Gusfield, 1975). These early sentiments were the foundation for the value-laden quest for community that has continued with modern scholars such as Sarason. As Delanty (2003) argued, the idea of community, which perhaps explains its enduring appeal, is related to the search for belonging in the insecure conditions of modernity. (p. 1) According to Sarason (1974), SOC was a prosocial force that should be at the center of community development and intervention. Early Sense of Community Studies Over the last 36 years, researchers have responded to Sarason s challenge to study and measure SOC (Brodsky, 1996; Glynn, 1981; McMillan & Chavis, 1986; Perkins et al., 1990; Prezza, Pacilli, Barbaranelli & Zampatti, 2009). Measurement of and scale development for residential/neighborhood SOC consumed early research efforts, which provided empirical evidence that SOC is a valid unidimensional and multidimensional construct (Bachrach & Zautra, 1985; Doolittle & MacDonald, 1978; Glynn, 1981; Riger & Lavrakas, 1981). 10

28 Glynn (1981) developed and validated one of the first instruments specifically designed to measure both SOC and its relation to other community concepts such as community competence and satisfaction. His measure included two sixty-item scales: SOC in relation to actual respondent experiences and the respondent s ideal SOC. Glynn posited that discrepancies between the two scales offered insight into opportunities for community change. Validation procedures demonstrated differences in the level of respondents actual but not ideal SOC across three characteristically different communities as expected. These results supported Sarason s claim that respondents in different community settings have different experiences but similar understandings of what constitutes an ideal level of SOC. Construct validity for Glynn s scale was supported by correlations between the SOC measured by that scale and other individuallevel community constructs including perceived satisfaction with the community and perceived ability to function competently as a community member. These studies demonstrated that SOC was a measurable construct, that respondent scores reflected their community experiences rather than their idealized notion(s) of community, and that SOC was related to modifiable community attitudes and behaviors. Despite Sarason s (1974) earlier claim, Glynn found standard psychometric techniques and procedures to be appropriate for testing the SOC construct. However, Glynn and other early investigators were criticized because their measures were primarily developed using factor analytic approaches and lacked a theoretical base (Doolittle & Macdonald, 1978 McMillan & Chavis, 1986). 11

29 Sense of Community Theory McMillan and Chavis (1986) advanced SOC research and measurement by proposing a theory based on the processes of social cohesion and group dynamics. Their theory consisted of four elements: (1) Membership--a sense of belonging that can be produced by: (a) boundaries that determine who is and who is not a member, (b) a sense of emotional security and identification and (c) a set of shared symbols, values and beliefs; (2) reciprocal influence-- the feeling that one has influence within a group and that one is also influenced by the group; (3) an integration and fulfillment of needs--the belief that individual needs will be met through membership in a group; and (4) a shared emotional connection--the bond created by past experiences or the anticipation and expectation that one will have future experiences (both positive and negative) with others in the group. Based on the dynamic relationships among these four elements, McMillan and Chavis defined SOC as a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members needs will be met through their commitment to be together. (p. 9) McMillan and Chavis proposed that their theory and definition could be applied both to geographical communities (i.e., relationships/social ties based on physical places such as neighborhoods, towns or cities) and to relational communities (i.e., those based on relationships/social ties arising from common and/or shared interests, activities, values, beliefs, attitudes, culture, and ethnicity). Over the last 24 years this view of SOC has emerged as the most advanced theoretical treatment of the construct and has been applied among adults and youth across geographical and relational communities as called for by 12

30 the theory (Bess, Fisher, Sonn & Bishop, 2002; Brodsky; 1996; Hill, 1996; Obst, et al., 2002a; Pretty et al., 1996). The four-component structure of the SOC construct has been validated by qualitative studies across several populations and settings including mothers living in inner-city neighborhoods (Brodsky, 1996), residents of an urban barrio in Caracas, Venezuela (Garcia et al., 1999) and residents living in a planned community in Sea Side, Florida (Plas & Lewis, 1996). Several quantitative studies have also supported the validity of the four dimensions of this theory using the Sense of Community Index (Chavis, Hogge, McMillan & Wandersman, 1986; Obst, Smith & Zinkiewicz, 2002b). Sense of Community Index In order to facilitate the application of the SOC theory proposed by McMillan and Chavis, investigators developed an open-ended measure, the Sense of Community Profile (SCP) that reflected the four theoretical dimensions (Chavis, et al., 1986). In order to further promote the application of the SCP, researchers shortened the measure to include only twelve dichotomous items (Perkins, et al., 1990). This abbreviated measure they called the Sense of Community Index (SCI). Although other measures have been developed to assess SOC in different referent groups such as neighborhood (Buckner, 1988; Doolittle & MacDonald, 1978; Nasar & Julian, 1995; Riger & Lavrakas, 1981; Tartaglia, 2006), city (Davidson & Cotter, 1986,1989), rural community (Bachrach & Zautra, 1985) and workplace/organization (Bishop, Chertok & Jason, 1997; Burroughs & Eby, 1998; Hughey, Speer & Peterson, 1999; Royal & Rossi, 1996;) the 12-item Sense of Community Index (SCI) has become the most widely applied, validated, adapted, 13

31 modified, and revised measure of SOC (Bateman, 2002; Brodsky, 1996; Brodsky, O Campo & Aronson, 1999; Chavis & Pretty, 1999; Chavis & Wandersman, 1990; Kingston, Mitchell, Florin, Stevenson, 1999; Long & Perkins, 2003; Obst, et al., 2002a; Obst & White, 2005; Pretty, et al., 1994; Sonn & Fisher, 1996). The SCI has been employed in studies of both geographical and relational community as well as among adult and youth populations (Glynn, 1981; Nasar & Julian, 1995; O Grady & Fisher, 2008; Proescholdbell, Roosa & Nemeroff, 2006). Construct validity has been supported by significant correlations between the SCI and other measures of community concepts including participation in block association activities, informal neighboring behaviors and informal social control as predicted (Perkins et al., 1990). The SCI has also been found to exhibit good inter-item reliability (α =.71 to.81, personal communication as reported in Chipuer and Pretty, 1999). Limitations of the Sense of Community Index Research has demonstrated the factor structures derived from the SCI do not always coincide with the four elements of the McMillan and Chavis model and that performance of the subscales has varied widely (Chipuer & Pretty, 1999; Long & Perkins, 2003; Obst & White, 2004; Peterson, Speer & McMillan, 2008). Explanations for poor or varied performance have included: (a) that SOC is a setting- and populationspecific concept (Hill, 1996; Loomis, Docket & Brodsky, 2004), (b) that the underlying McMillan and Chavis model does not reflect relevant SOC dimensions (Long & Perkins, 2003; Tartaglia, 2006), (c) that potential variability among respondents is limited by employing a dichotomous response structure rather than a Likert-type response choice 14

32 format (Peterson, et al., 2008), (d) that respondents may be confused by or not attend closely to the use of negatively worded items (Peterson, Speer & Hughey, 2006); and (e) the measure conflated the antecedent of the dimension with the dimension itself (Proescholdbell et al., 2006). In order to address these limitations, researchers have continued to revise the SCI as well as to develop new measures that aim both to reflect more closely the four McMillan and Chavis dimensions and to better understand the relationships among the dimensions (Peterson, et al., 2008; Proescholdbell et al., 2006). Chipuer and Pretty (1999) analyzed data from four studies that employed the SCI with adults and youth in residential communities as well as adults in a relational community (i.e., work). Reliability estimates (r) for the total scale ranged from.64 (for youth in neighborhoods) to.69 (for adults in a work setting). Among the four McMillan and Chavis-based theoretical subscales (i.e., Membership, Influence, Integration and Fulfillment of Needs and Shared Emotional Connection), only Membership (among adults in the neighborhood) exhibited an acceptable reliability estimate of greater than.70 (.72). For all other subscales, reliability estimates ranged from.07 (Adult Shared Emotional Connection in neighborhoods) to.51 (Adult Needs in the workplace and youth Membership in neighborhoods). In addition, Principal Component Analyses (PCA) of these data yielded four factors among adults and youth for neighborhood SOC but only three factors for adults in the workplace. Most of the items loaded on several factors. In other words, many individual items did not appear to measure only the intended constructs. These findings prompted Chipuer & Pretty to recommend that the SCI be used as a unidimensional rather than a multidimensional measure until items more accurately reflecting the McMillan and Chavis model are developed and validated. Since 15

33 that time, other researchers have attempted to revise the SCI or create new theoreticallybased measures (Long & Perkins, 2003; Obst & White, 2004; Peterson, et al., 2008). Revised or New Sense of Community Index-based Measures Long and Perkins (2003) reanalyzed the data used to develop the original 12-item SCI. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and associated goodness of fit indices indicated that neither one-factor nor four-factor solutions fit the data well. Four of the items in the extended measure reflected a similar yet distinct construct, which they termed place attachment. Long and Perkins replaced these items with three new items. Subsequent exploratory factor analysis of the resulting measure identified a three-factor measure (Connections, Mutual Concerns, and Community Values). Items that did not load strongly on only one of those factors were removed, resulting in an eight-item measure called the Brief Sense of Community Index (BSCI). Internal consistency estimates using the BSCI across two waves of data collection ranged from.65 to.73 for the entire measure and.50 to.64 for each of the three factors. CFA from the second wave in this study was best described by a three-factor solution, which improved model fit compared to a single factor. Interfactor correlations among items designed to represent the three separate factors were found to be as follows: between Social Connections and Mutual Concerns (r =.67); between Social Connections and Community Values (.56) and between Community Values and Mutual Concerns (.68). Construct validity was addressed by computing multilevel correlations (individual- and street block-level) across two time points between total BSCI, the three BSCI factors, eight demographic variables (e.g., income, age, education and race) and eight community concepts (i.e., place 16

34 attachment, community satisfaction, block confidence, informal social control, neighboring, citizen participation, perceived block association self efficacy, and communitarianism). Approximately 80% (407/512) of the correlation values were found to be in the predicted direction. Intra-class correlations determined that street block significantly predicted 7% of the variance in BSCI scores at baseline and follow-up. Taken together, these data provide strong support for the validity and reliability of the BSCI as a measure of individual and community levels of SOC in adults. More recently, Peterson, et al., (2008) developed the Brief Sense of Community Scale (BSCS) with eight items designed to more specifically reflect the four-dimension model of McMillan and Chavis (1986). In response to two often cited criticisms of the SCI, the BSCS employed a five-point Likert-type response format and only included positively worded items. Example items for each dimension include I can get what I need in this neighborhood (Need for Fulfillment), I belong in this neighborhood (Membership), I have a say about what goes on in my neighborhood (Influence) and I feel connected to this neighborhood (Emotional Connection; p. 71). CFA, construct validity and reliability analyses were conducted on data collected with the BSCS from 293 adults (98% white; 29% reporting income between $50,000 and $75,000) participating in a health promotion program in a Midwestern city in the United States. CFA and related goodness of fit indices supported that a four-factor solution was a superior fit to the data compared to a one-factor model solution. Second order analyses CFA were consistent with the proposition that the four dimensions represented a single construct. When adjusted for demographic variables, the total BSCS score correlated significantly and in the predicted direction with two community concepts [community participation (r =.16) 17

35 and psychological empowerment (.22)] and with one measure of mental health (.32). As predicted, total BSCS score was negatively correlated with a standardized measure of depression, supporting the discriminant validity of the measure. Statistically significant partial correlations ranging from.79 to.91 were also obtained between total BSCS and each of the four dimensions. Internal reliability estimates for the combined BSCS score were excellent (r =.92). Reliability estimates among the subscales were somewhat lower as expected (for shorter scales) but were still in the acceptable range ( ). Summary of Research With Adults The scale development research reviewed above revealed that SOC has been established as a construct that can be reliably measured (Glynn, 1981; Long & Perkins, 2003; Nasar & Julian, 1995; Peterson et al., 2008). Seymour Sarason (1974), an early influential theorist, emphasized SOC as a value-laden prosocial concept that reflected longstanding perceptions that modern society promoted the loss of community. He maintained that the concept was not amenable to traditional psychometric testing, but researchers over the last 36 years have developed valid and reliable measures of SOC in both geographical and relational communities using standard psychometrics (Peterson et al., 2008; Obst et al., 2002a, b). Much of the SOC research to date has been based on a single theory (namely that of McMillan & Chavis, 1986) and its associated measure, the SCI (Perkins et al., 1990). SOC researchers have been primarily occupied with adapting and revising the SCI in order to develop a measure that reflects the proposed fourdimensional structure of SOC as proposed by McMillan and Chavis. Validation procedures have included exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to determine 18

36 dimensionality (Chipuer & Pretty, 1999; Long & Perkins, 2003; Peterson et al., 2006, 2008). Researchers have computed the inter-item correlations of both the combined measure and of items intended to measure the four theoretical dimensions as measures of the reliability of each. Both convergent and discriminant validity of these measures have been supported by analysis of correlations between items within and across the four theoretical dimensions, as well as against dissimilar constructs (e.g., depression). Studies employing the SCI have also identified its limitations, including the inconsistency between SCI items and the four proposed theoretically-based factors. Several explanations for the SCI s mixed performance have been proposed including the use of negatively worded items and a dichotomous answer format (Peterson et al., 2006) and the possibility that SOC is a context- and setting-specific phenomenon (Hill, 1996). Just as no consensus definition of community has been reached (Gusfield, 1975), the measurement of concepts such as SOC continues to challenge scholars. The construct definitions and measures developed in the studies reviewed in this section have largely employed adults. Is SOC a useful construct, however, for the study of children and adolescents? Measuring Sense of Community Among Youth In addition to its application to the study of adults, SOC has also emerged as a relevant construct among children and adolescents (Albanesi et al., 2007; Evans, 2007; O Grady & Fisher, 2008; Pooley et al., 2002; Pretty, 2002; Pretty et al., 1994, 1996). Theorists have posited that feeling that one belongs is a basic human need (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Maslow, 1954) reflecting Aristotle s (1943 version) ancient assertion that 19

37 A social instinct is implanted in all men by nature. (p. 55) Social scientists have developed societal-level concepts such as social integration (Durkheim, 1952) and individual-level concepts such as social support (House, Umberson & Landis, 1988) and attachment (Bowlby, 1969) to represent the human need for belonging. Recognizing (or sensing ) characteristics about a specific physical and social environment and determining whether one belongs to that environment (i.e., person-environment fit ) may be critical developmental tasks that facilitate the maturation of other competencies such as autonomy and identity. The feeling that one belongs may provide emotional safety and a social foundation for development of behavioral and social skills. These ideas compliment Bronfenbrenner s (1979) ecological framework which posits that optimal development includes the ability to recognize and navigate increasingly complex social environments. SOC has been qualitatively and quantitatively assessed in youth in both geographical and relational community settings including residential neighborhoods and schools (Bateman, 2002; Chipuer, et al., 1999; O Grady & Fisher, 2008; Pooley et al., 2002; Pretty et al., 1994, 1996; Vieno, Perkins, Smith & Santinello, 2005). Several SOC measures initially used with adults have been employed with youth including the SCI (Bateman, 2002; Pretty et al., 1994, 1996), the Italian Sense of Community Scale (Zani et al., 2001) and the SOC subscale of the Neighbourhood Cohesion Instrument (Pretty, Chipuer & Bramston, 2003). SOC has been identified as a key indicator of adolescent perceptions of the social environment, a construct related to identity as a member of their community, feelings of belongingness, psychosocial development and subjective wellbeing (Albanesi et al., 2007; Pooley et al., 2002; Pretty, 2002; Pretty et al., 1994, 1996). 20

38 Theoretical development for youth SOC has also been based on qualitative research such as that conducted by Pooley and colleagues (2002) whose work among children in Australia indicated an increased emphasis on relational components of SOC and the importance of safety. The dimensions of Support and Friendships determined for the Neighborhood Youth Inventory (NYI) also reflected an emphasis on relational components of SOC (Chipuer et al., 1999), highlighting the importance of forming social bonds and of Sarason s (1974) original definition of SOC as related to a supportive network of relationships upon which one could depend (p. 1) Although researchers have indicated that SOC is a relevant framework for describing community experiences of young people, they have criticized the use of adult measures because these measures may not reflect dimensions that are relevant to youth (Chipuer & Pretty, 1999; Pooley et al., 2002). For example, Chipuer et al. (1999) found that the dimension of Influence (as theorized by McMillan & Chavis) might not be as relevant to the construct of community for youth as is having fun and/or feeling safe. To date, few SOC measures have been developed specifically for youth. Neighborhood Youth Inventory One SOC-related instrument used today is the Neighborhood Youth Inventory (NYI), a 22- item instrument employing a five-point Likert-type response format that measures adolescent experiences in their neighborhood, (Chipuer et al., 1999). Examples of items for each of its four dimensions include the following: If I needed help I could go to anyone in my neighborhood (Support); There are fights in my neighborhood (Safety); There are things for kids my age to do in my neighborhood (Activity) and 21