Vision Seeing is in the mind
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1 1 Vision Seeing is in the mind Stimulus: Light 2 Light Characteristics 1. Wavelength (hue) 2. Intensity (brightness) 3. Saturation (purity) 3
2 4 Hue (color): dimension of color determined by wavelength of light. Wavelength the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next. Wavelength (Hue) Wavelength (Hue) 400 nm 700 nm Short wavelengths Long wavelengths Different wavelengths of light result in different colors. 5 Intensity: Amount of energy in a wave determined by amplitude relates to perceived brightness. Intensity (Brightness) 6
3 7 Intensity (Brightness) Blue color with varying levels of intensity. As intensity increases the blue color looks more washed out. Saturated Saturated Purity (Saturation) Monochromatic light added to green and red make them less saturated. 8 Saturation: Purity of hues. Red would be a pure color, but bluish red would be saturated color. Saturation 9
4 10 Characteristics Saturation (mix of wavelengths) Different wavelengths mix to change the purity of the final wavelength. Represents all three characteristics of the light stimulus on model. Color Solid 11 Pupil: regulates amount of light entering the eye. Iris: constricts or dilates by varying amounts of light. The Eye Sclera: Outer layer of the eyeball 12
5 13 1. Cornea: Transparent tissue where light enters the eye. 2. Iris: Muscle that regulates the amount of light 3. Pupil: The aperture 4. Lens: Focuses the light rays on the retina. 5. Retina: Contains sensory receptors that process visual information and send it to the brain. 6. Fovea: Maximum concentration of cones for resolution 7. Optic disk: Where the optic nerve leaves the eye. Blind spot. Anatomy of the Eye Fundus Picture 14 Blind Spot Check your blind spot 15
6 16 Retina 1. Photoreceptors: Light sensitive rods and cones. 2. Bipolar cells: Connect photoreceptors with ganglion cells 3. Ganglion Cells: Process visual images into neuronal impulses and carry them to the thalamus 4. Horizontal Cells: Horizontal cells connect photoreceptors laterally. 5. Amacrine Cells: Amacrine cells connect ganglion laterally. Photoreceptors Rods: Low light vision Sensitivity Greater in number (120 million) Cones: Bright light vision Resolution Fewer in number (8 million) 17 Cones in fovea Cone Surface Vessels around fovea 18
7 19 Photoreceptor Distribution 1. Large number of cones in the center of the retina. Their density decreases in the peripheral retina 2. Fewer numbers of rods in the central retina. Their density increases in the retinal periphery 3. No photoreceptors at the optic disk (blind spot) Peripheral Middle Fovea Middle Peripheral retina retina retina retina The photoreceptors are bombarded with shades of light and darkness. The intensities of these shades can be depicted as number say 9 (light) to 2 (dark). Can you tell what do these numbers represent? Gray Shades 20 Photoreceptors Outer segments of photoreceptors consist of disks, embedded with rhodopsin molecules that go through changes when light falls on them. 21
8 22 Experimental Setup Experimental set-up to record from individual photoreceptor cells. Phototransduction 1) Light transforms rhodopsin. 2) Replaces GTP instead of GDP. 3) Activated G-protein binds to PDE. 4) PDE hydrolyzes cgmp. 5) Na+ channels close. Photoreceptor hyperpolarizes. 23 Glutamate Glutamate release is decreased when the photoreceptor hyperpolarizes in light. Glutamate increases when photoreceptor is depolarized in darkness. 24
9 25 Graded Response Central Visual Pathway (Visual Information) Optic nerve Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (Thalamus) Visual Cortex Visual Pathways 26 Visual Pathways 1. Projections to the Pretectum (Pupillary Reflex) 2. Projections to the superior Colliculus (saccadic eye movements) 27
10 28 Visual Fields Lateral Geniculate Nucleus 1. Parvocellular Pathway (cone mediated, color, high resolution) 2. Magnocellular Pathway (rod mediated, b/w, sensitivity) 29 How does the brain sees? Hubel and Wiesel (1960s) Used microelectrodes to record from neurons in the primary visual cortex cats and monkeys. Discovered feature detector cells: neurons that respond selectively to lines, edges. 30
11 31 Off-cell Photoreceptor receptive field Photoreceptor RF On-cell Photoreceptor receptive field Receptive field is an area of a visual cell in which it is responsive to visual stimuli (Dowling, 1987) Surround Center Ganglion Cell RF Off-center Receptive field of bipolar, ganglion and LGN neurons 32 (Dowling, 1987) Visual Cortex Cell s RF LGN neuron Center-surround RF Visual Cortex Neuron RF of a simple cell 33
12 34 Complex Cell Receptive fields of other neurons in visual cortex are more complex. Bars of light moving in one direction lead to strong response, but a weak response in the other direction. Strong Weak Streams of Visual information 35 Color Vision Wavelength determines color. 400 nm 700 nm Short wavelengths Long wavelengths Different wavelengths of light result in different colors. 36
13 37 Color Vision Most important aspect of primate vision. Also present in many birds. Why is color vision important? Food Identification of food Mates Attracts mates 39
14 40 Why Color Important? Camouflage to avoid predation Quail Theories of Color Vision 1. Trichromatic theory (Helmholtz) 2. Opponent-Process theory (Herring) 41 Trivariancy Property Blue Green Red 42
15 43 Helmholtz suggested (based on his psychophysical experiments) that there has to be three receptors in the retina that are sensitive to red, blue and green colors. Three Receptors Helmholtz ( ) Edwards MacNichol and his colleagues and George Wald and Paul Brown (1967) measured directly the absorption spectra of visual pigments of single cones obtained from the retinas of humans. Photoreceptors Blue Short wave Green Medium wave Red Long wave 44 Photoreceptor Response 45
16 46 Addition of Colors If three primary colors (lights) are mixed the wavelengths are added and the result in white color. Subtraction of Colors If three primary colors (pigments) are mixed it results in subtraction of all wavelengths and the result is black color. 47 After-images 48
17 49 Another Example Opponent Process theory Hering, proposed that we process four primary colors opposed in pairs of red-green, blue-yellow, and blackwhite. That is why we see red, blue and white afterimage of Britainʹs flag because green s afterimage is red, yellow s blue and blackʹs white. 50 Color Blindness Genetic disorder in which people are blind to green or red colors. Ishihara Test 51
18 52 Color Blindness Normal No red No green Color Constancy Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object 53 Theories of Color Vision 1. Trichromatic theory (Young and Helmholtz) Electromagnetic spectrum contains continuous spectral colors that are infinite 54
19 55 Trivariancy Property Blue Green Red Three Receptors There has to be three receptors in the retina that are sensitive to red, blue and green colors and that combination of these three colors will lead to generating any color in the spectrum. 56 Edwards MacNichol and his colleagues and George Wald and Paul Brown (1967) measured directly the absorption spectra of visual pigments of single cones obtained from the retinas of humans. Photoreceptors Blue Short wave Green Medium wave Red Long wave 57
20 58 Photoreceptor Response After-images 59 Opponent Process theory Four color primaries in the retinal ganglion cells formed by three photoreceptors. 60
21 61 Color-opponency in Ganglion Cells Genetic disorder in which people are blind to green or red colors. Color Blindness Ishihara Test 62 Normal Color Vision 63
22 64 Protanomaly Weak in red Deuteranomaly Weak in green 65 Protanopia No red 66
23 67 Deuternopia No green Perception Perception: selection, organization, and interpretation of neural information Gestalt psychologists suggested that perception was organized. The same visual stimulus can result in very different perceptions 68 Two Faces or a Vase? 69
24 70 Old lady or young? Can you see it now? 71 Proximity Elements that are close together are grouped together. 72
25 73 Continuity Elements in smooth continuation are grouped together. Simplicity Elements are organized in simplest possible ways. 74 Closure Missing elements are supplied to close or complete a familiar figure. 75
26 76 How do we perceive? Feature detection theory Suggests that perception is based on a process of breaking stimuli into features which are put back together in the brain. Bottom-up processing Features 77 Bottom-up processing Recognize stimulus Combine specific features into more complex forms Detect specific features of the stimulus 78
27 79 How do we perceive? Gestalt theory Suggests that perception is based on what we already know, or what we hypothesize about the stimulus Top-down processing Top-down processing Make hypothesis about the stimulus Select features to check hypothesis Recognize stimulus 80 Read below! 81
28 82 Depth Perception Binocular cues When we use both eyes to perceive depth Convergence 83 Retinal Disparity 84
29 85 Depth Perception Monocular cues Perception of depth using one eye 1. Motion parallax 2. Accommodation Pictorial Depth Cues 86 Perceptual Constancy Stable perceptions amid changing stimuli Size constancy 87
30 88 Shape Constancy False perception: discrepancy between visual appearance and physical reality. Muller-Lyer Illusions Ponzo Poggendorf 89 Impossible Figure 90
31 91 Are illusions innate? Cultural differences Perceptual hypotheses at work
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