A Basic Needs Theory investigation of adolescents physical self-concept and global self-esteem

Transcription

1 See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: A Basic Needs Theory investigation of adolescents physical self-concept and global self-esteem Article in International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology December 2012 DOI: / X CITATIONS 12 READS authors, including: Alex C. Garn Louisiana State University 92 PUBLICATIONS 642 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Jeffrey Martin Wayne State University 251 PUBLICATIONS 2,841 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE bo Shen Wayne State University 110 PUBLICATIONS 953 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Mariane M Fahlman Wayne State University 126 PUBLICATIONS 1,275 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Oxford Handbook of Disability Sport and Exercise Psychology View project Test of Gross Motor Development View project All content following this page was uploaded by Jeffrey Martin on 01 June The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

2 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology Vol. 10, No. 4, December 2012, A Basic Needs Theory investigation of adolescents physical self-concept and global self-esteem Alex C. Garn a *, Nathan McCaughtry b, Jeffrey Martin b, Bo Shen b and Mariane Fahlman b a Department of Kinesiology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA; b Department of Kinesiology, Health, and Sport Studies, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA (Received 13 February 2012; final version received 24 April 2012) This investigation tested a Basic Needs Theory (BNT) model of physical self-concept with urban adolescents participating in high school physical education (PE). Direct relationships among autonomy support in PE, overall need satisfaction in PE, physical self-concept, and global self-esteem were tested in the model. The mediating roles of overall need satisfaction and physical self-concept were also tested. High school students (N = 1022) completed questionnaires pertaining to autonomy support, need satisfaction, physical self-concept, and global self-esteem. Results from structural equation modeling revealed a good fit of the data to the hypothesized model. In the structural model all direct associations were significant and overall need satisfaction fully mediated the relationships between autonomy support and physical self-concept and autonomy support and global self-esteem. Physical self-concept was a partial mediator in the relationship between overall need satisfaction and global selfesteem. The overall model accounted for 37% of the variance in urban adolescents global self-esteem. BNT appears to be a solid framework to investigate domain-specific selfconcepts of urban adolescents engaging in the physical education. Keywords: autonomy support; need satisfaction; psychological well-being Adolescence is a developmental period linked with dynamic psychological challenges (Wigfield, Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991). For example, adolescents become aware and often struggle to resolve changing or unsatisfactory personal attributes, which can cause conflict in defining who they are (Harter, Bresnick, Bouchey, & Whitesell, 1997). In their review of adolescent development, Steinberg and Morris (2001) also suggest that adolescence is a period when self-perceptions are at the forefront of psychological development. Craven and Marsh (2008) identify self-concept (i.e. descriptive and evaluative perceptions of self) as foundational to psychological health across age and gender. Because adolescence denotes the transition from childhood to adulthood; the formation of self-concept during this developmental period is generally correlated with long-term self-perceptions and represents a good predictor of future health outcomes (Trzesniewski et al., 2006). Therefore, it is especially important to understand and support the healthy development of self-concept during adolescence (Marsh, 1989). Self-concept has a multi-dimensional structure (Craven & Marsh, 2008; Marsh, Martin, & Jackson, 2010). In other words, adolescents commonly define themselves academically (i.e. academic self-concept), physically (i.e. physical self-concept), socially (i.e. social *Corresponding author. agarn@lsu.edu ISSN X print/issn X online 2012 International Society of Sport Psychology

3 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 315 self-concept), and emotionally (i.e. emotional self-concept). Marsh et al. (2010) defines physical self-concept as feeling positive about one s physical self (p. 473). Physical self-concept may be especially important to adolescents global self-perceptions and overall psychological development because of the juxtaposition of the physical changes and social awareness that occurs during this time period (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Physical education (PE) is a school-based context almost all adolescents experience that can shape physical self-concept (Marsh, Papaioannou, & Theodorakis, 2006). In fact, enhancing physical self-concept is addressed in current national educational guidelines (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2004; United Kingdom Department of Education [UKDE], 2012). NASPE (2004) suggests that an important outcome for students in PE is to promote a positive self-image (p. 45). The UKDE (2012) reports PE experiences should enhance students personal development, feelings of physical competence, and improve understanding of one s body. PE has an important relationship with urban adolescents physical self-concept because they often face barriers to participating in physical activity outside of school (Gomez, Johnson, Selva, & Sallis, 2004). For example, unsafe physical activity space in neighborhoods and living in poverty often challenges physical activity opportunities outside of school for urban adolescents (Flory & McCaughtry, 2011). Because high school athletics are not inclusive for all urban students, and urban high schools do not always have the resources to run extensive intramural programs, PE is situated in a unique position to impact urban adolescents physical selfconcept. The social environment in PE provides students with extensive information concerning their physical competence, physical appearance, level of fitness, and health through a combination of explicit (e.g. verbal feedback; fitness test results) and implicit (e.g. participation/exclusion based on performance) experiences. The interpretation of these experiences can have a substantial influence on how adolescents come to view their physical self-concept (Marsh, 1996). There is currently a need for theoretically based studies to shed light on the processes that support urban adolescents ability to navigate PE social environments in ways that lead to enhanced physical self-concept. Basic Needs Theory Basic Needs Theory (BNT) has potential to uncover links between the social environment in urban PE and physical self-concept. The emphasis of BNT is on need satisfaction and the role it plays in psychological well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2007). Ryan and Deci (2007) posit that individuals actively pursue the satisfaction of three innate psychological needs. The need for autonomy refers to feelings of self-direction and self-organization in one s own behavior. The need for competence refers to feeling effective in one s social environment while the need for relatedness refers to feeling in a reciprocal sense of care with others (i.e. caring for and being cared for). According to BNT theorists, need satisfaction is not optimal but essential for psychological growth and well-being across all demographics and contexts (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci et al., 2001). In other words, need satisfaction represents a universal nutriment in psychological development and well-being (Deci et al., 2001). Need satisfaction embodies the fulfillment of all three psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Proponents of BNT call for more researchers to examine the direct relationships between need satisfaction and psychological outcomes in order to provide stronger evidence that the collective interaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness represents a universal nutriment to psychological well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci et al., 2001). Researchers investigating the direct links between need satisfaction and psychological outcomes have examined

4 316 A.C. Garn et al. both the independent effects of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (e.g. Reinboth & Duda, 2006; Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004; Quested & Duda, 2010) and overall need satisfaction (e.g. composite variable representing autonomy, competence, and relatedness; Deci et al., 2001; Wilson, Mack, Blanchard, & Gray, 2009). Evidence from both types of studies provides support for the assumptions of BNT. The focus of the current study is on overall need satisfaction in PE because, in our estimation, it provides a more holistic representation of the need satisfaction construct as defined by Deci and Ryan (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci et al., 2001; Wilson et al., 2009). In other words, examining the individual relationships of autonomy, competence, and relatedness provides information on the ingredients of need satisfaction, but may not be the best way to represent the inclusive nature of need satisfaction. Individuals seek social environments that support self-direction, self-organization, and selfactualization (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci et al., 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2007). Referred to as autonomy support (Deci et al., 2001), the idea is that individuals must view the structures of a social environment to be nurturing of autonomy, instead of controlling (Reinboth & Duda, 2006). The link between autonomy support and need satisfaction in PE has been well documented (see Standage, Gillison, & Treasure, 2007, for a review). Examples of how a physical educator can create an autonomy supportive environment include allowing students to provide meaningful input about activities or encouraging students to self-initiate. Therefore, according to BNT need satisfaction is situated as a mediator between the social environment (i.e. autonomy support) and psychological outcomes (Quested & Duda, 2010). Mediation testing helps clarify relationships among variables by highlighting intervening factors that affect the relationship between predictor and outcome variables (Baron & Kenny, 1986). In BNT, for example, previous studies suggest that need satisfaction is an intervening factor (i.e. mediator) between environmental perceptions such as autonomy support and psychological outcomes such as positive affect and self-esteem (Deci et al., 2001; Reinboth & Duda, 2006). Thus, need satisfaction helps explain how an individual moves from interpreting the autonomy support of an environment to experiencing psychological outcomes. Baron and Kenny (1986) suggest that mediation occurs when the: (a) predictor and outcome variables are related; (b) mediator is predicted by the predictor variable; (c) mediator predicts the outcome variable; and (d) the relationship between the predictor and outcome variable is reduced to zero when the mediator is added to the model. Deci and Ryan (2000) theorize that need satisfaction represents the fulfillment of basic psychological needs. The effects of need satisfaction, therefore, are posited to be similar across different demographic variables such as gender and ethnicity because needs are considered universal. Recently, BNT research has supported this theorizing. For example, Wilson et al. (2009) revealed that gender did not moderate the relationships between need satisfaction and positive affect or need satisfaction and negative effect in exercisers. Similarly, Deci et al. (2001) reported that need satisfaction had similar relationships with psychological outcomes such as self-esteem cross-culturally. The application of BNT in Black/African American cultures is currently untested. Based on the current theory and empirical evidence, we hypothesize that relationships identified in BNT will be similar in urban PE that serves mostly Black/African American high school students. Physical self-concept and global self-esteem Developing lines of inquiry that highlight the processes of physical self-concept development has been and continues to be endorsed by experts (Craven & Marsh, 2008; Marsh et al., 2010). For example, Craven and Marsh (2008) highlight potential synergies between physical self-concept and constructs of BNT. First, they suggest that self-concepts are fundamental to young peoples psychological well-being and optimal functioning. Second, they emphasize the

5 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 317 importance of the social environment in the development of self-concepts. Finally, they report that the underlying psychological constructs of intrinsic motivation might represent mechanisms for enhancing physical self-concept. Marsh and colleagues theorize that physical self-concept is hierarchical, multidimensional, and domain specific (Craven & Marsh, 2008; Marsh et al., 2006; Marsh et al., 2010). Global self-esteem resides at the top of Marsh s model of physical self-concept. It is operationalized as the overall positive feelings one has about her/himself (Marsh et al., 2010) and considered a higher-order representation of multi-dimensional self-concepts (Craven & Marsh, 2008). Marsh and colleagues also posit that global self-esteem is an indispensable element of psychological well-being (Craven & Marsh, 2008). Physical self-concept (i.e. positive feelings about one s physical-self) represents one of four direct indicators (i.e. academic, social, emotional) of global self-esteem (Marsh et al., 2010). These four indicators represent the first example of the multi-dimensional nature of global self-esteem. An array of self-perceptions within the physical domain (e.g. being good at sports, being strong, having endurance, being healthy) characterize the multidimensional nature of physical self-concept and reside at the lowest level of Marsh s model. PE is considered a prominent domain-specific social environment that influences physical selfconcept (Marsh et al., 2006). From a theoretical perspective, needs satisfaction is an important factor in developing positive self-perceptions (Deci & Ryan, 1995). Most studies to date, however, have identified the links between different types of motivation and physical self-concept (Wilson & Rodgers, 2002) or global self-esteem (Hein & Haggar, 2007). Need satisfaction is considered to be an underlying factor of intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). From a BNT perspective, the direct links between need satisfaction and physical self-concept should be tested (Ryan & Deci, 2007; Wilson et al., 2009). Identifying these direct links could provide more evidence for the utility value of BNT (Deci and Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2007) by establishing the relationship that physical self-concept has with the underlying mechanisms of intrinsic motivation (Craven & Marsh, 2008). The present study The above articulation provides a theoretical model that underlies a linear mediating relationship among autonomy support, need satisfaction, physical self-concept, and global self-esteem. Given the compelling reasons for PE to meet the needs of urban adolescents, the purpose of this study was to test a BNT model of physical self-concept with a sample of urban adolescents participating in high school PE (see Figure 1). It was hypothesized that need satisfaction in PE would mediate the relationship between perceptions of a autonomy supporting environment and physical self-concept (Deci et al., 2001; Thogersen-Ntoumani & Ntoumanis, 2010; Wilson et al., 2009). Physical self-concept, in turn, would mediate the relationship between need satisfaction in PE and global self-esteem (Craven & Marsh, 2008; Marsh et al., 2006). Figure 1. Hypothesized BNT model.

6 318 A.C. Garn et al. Methods Participants Participants in this study were high school students (N=1022) from a large urban, inner-city, low socioeconomic school district in the Midwestern United States. The mean age of the sample was (SD = 1.31) and the gender distribution was approximately even (female n = 511, male n=490, missing n= 21). Students reported their race/ethnicity as black/african American (85%), Hispanic/Latino/Mexican-American (5%), white/caucasian (2%), American Indian/ Pacific Islander (1%), Asian American (1%), Arab (2%), and other (3%). Students were in the ninth (21%), 10th (23%), 11th (19%) and 12th (37%) grades and represented 14 different high schools within the urban district. Permission was granted by the University Institutional Review Board, school district, and teachers to conduct the current study. Parents provided informed consent and students provided assent to complete the study. Setting PE classes at all schools met three times per week for 55 minutes per class. Classes were mandatory as district policy outlines that students must take PE for one semester during high school in order to graduate. The Exemplary Physical Education Curriculum (EPEC; Michigan Fitness Foundation, 2005) was the mandated district-wide curriculum used in all 14 schools. EPEC focuses on personal conditioning, wellness, lifelong physical activities, and social development. The EPEC curriculum is closely aligned with US content standards for quality physical education (NASPE, 2004). All 14 teachers had taught PE in the school district for five or more years and received ongoing professional development with EPEC. Measures Autonomy support. Autonomy support was measured with the six-item Sport Climate Questionnaire (SCQ; Deci, 2001). In order the make the SCQ domain specific to PE, the term coach was replaced with PE teacher in all items. Past studies have successfully adapted the SCQ to secondary PE environments (e.g. Lim & Wang, 2009). An example item was: I feel that my PE teacher provides me choices and options. A five-point scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree was used for all items. Need satisfaction. Need satisfaction was measured with the Basic Need Satisfaction at Work Scale (BNSWS; Ilardi, Leone, Kasser, & Ryan, 1993). The BNSWS contains subscales for the satisfaction of autonomy (e.g. I am free to express my ideas and opinions in PE class), competence (e.g. I have been able to learn interesting new skills in PE class) and relatedness (e.g. I get along with people in PE class). All items were measured on a five-point scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. Past researchers have successfully adapted the BNSWS to secondary PE settings (e.g. Ntoumanis, 2005). Physical self-concept and global self-esteem. The short version of the Physical Self- Description Questionnaire (PSDQ-S) was used to measure physical self-concept and global self-esteem (Marsh et al., 2010). The physical self-concept subscale of the PSDQ-S consists of three items that are posed to students as declarative statements (e.g. Physically, I am happy with myself). The global self-esteem subscale of the PSDQ-S consists of five declarative statements (e.g. Overall, most things I do turn out well). The PSDQ-S uses a six-point scale ranging from (1) false to (6) true. Marsh et al. (2010) provide extensive evidence on the ability of the PSDQ-S to produce valid and reliable scores with an array of samples including adolescents.

7 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 319 Procedures A trained research assistant who was familiar with the PE teachers and had extensive prior experience conducted data collection with the students. The research assistant visited PE classes, explained the study and questionnaires to the students, and supervised/answered questions until all participants completed the questionnaires. The students spread out in the gymnasium and completed the paper/pencil questionnaires during one-class period of PE. In most of the schools, the teachers remained in the gymnasium during data collection. In a handful of schools, teachers stayed in their office and were not present during the data collection. Data analysis Descriptive statistics and internal consistency estimates were analyzed using SPSS version 19. Structural equation modeling (SEM) with maximum likelihood estimation was used to test the BNT model (AMOS version 19). SEM uses a two-step approach that includes (a) the creation of a measurement model via confirmatory factor analysis procedures to establish the fit of the data to the proposed model; and (b) the generation of a structural model through path analyses to simultaneously test the hypothesized relationships among latent variables in the model (Byrne, 2001). Based on the aims of this study, partially aggregated indicators (i.e. parcels) were created for autonomy support, need satisfaction, and global self-esteem (Little, Cunningham, Shahar, & Widaman, 2002). Using parcels in the measurement model is deemed appropriate when the focus of a study is on understanding the relationships of a set of theoretical constructs (Little et al., 2002). Parcels also provide advantages to obtaining a parsimonious model by stabilizing parameter estimates and increasing the reliability of indicators (Coffman & MacCallum, 2005). Three aggregate parcels were generated for each latent variable, except physical self-concept, which had a total of three indicator items. The three parcel indicators for need satisfaction were the three mean scores of the three subscales of the BPNS (i.e. autonomy, competence, relatedness). A random approach was used to create parcels for autonomy support (mean score of items 1 and 5; 2 and 4; 3 and 6) and global self-esteem (mean score of items 1 and 2; 3 and 5; item 4). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the hypothesized factor structure of the measures. The fit of the CFA and all SEM measurement models was determined using recommendations from Hu and Bentler (1999). The following criteria were used: (a) χ 2 /df ratio of < 3.00; (b) Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) >.95; and (c) root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) <.08. Factor loadings of >.40 for latent variable indicators were also used as criteria to determine if the model fit was acceptable. Multiple structural models, with different specified pathways, were used for the predictor (X), mediator (M), and outcome (Y) variables (Shrout & Bolger, 2002). Direct paths are identified in Figure 1 (e.g. autonomy support need satisfaction). Indirect effects represent the product (a*b) of the path coefficients between X M(a) and M Y (b) (Preacher & Hayes, 2008; Shrout & Bolger, 2002). Indirect effects were the focal point of this study in order to determine if: (a) need satisfaction (M1) mediated the relationship between autonomy support (X1) and physical selfconcept (Y1); and (b) physical self-concept (M2) mediated the relationship between need satisfaction (X2) and self-esteem (Y2). Results Preliminary analysis Preliminary analyses were used to examine possible outliers and gender differences in all study variables. During the process of searching for outliers, four cases (z scores of +/ 3.0) were

8 320 A.C. Garn et al. excluded from the analyses of this study. Independent-samples t tests were then used to explore possible gender differences. A significant t test revealed that females reported higher levels of self-esteem than males (t (983) = 4.26, Cohen s d =.26). Therefore, gender was added to the SEM model and a direct path between gender and self-esteem was tested. Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics are summarized in Table 1. The overall mean score for each measured variable was above the mid-point of its respective scale. All bivariate correlations were significant (p <.01) and had small to moderate magnitudes ( ). Cronbach alpha estimates ranged from a high of.87 (physical self-concept) to a low of.65 (need for autonomy). Confirmatory factor analysis The CFA produced an adequate to good overall fit. Specifically, the indices were: χ 2 = ; df = 52; χ 2 /df ratio = 4.23; CFI =.97; TLI =.96; RMSEA =.06. Standardized factor loadings ranged from 60 to.88 (p <.01). These results provided statistical justification to proceed with SEM. Measurement model A test of the SEM measurement model for the proposed BNT model produced good results (Hu & Bentler, 1999): χ 2 = ; df =62; χ 2 /df ratio = 2.60; CFI =.98; TLI =.97; RMSEA =.04. Furthermore, indicators fit their respective latent variables. The standardized factor loadings for all indicators ranged from.61 to.88, which represented a good indicator-latent variable fit. Zero-order correlations among the latent variables were all significant (p<.01) and ranged from.14 (autonomy support global self-esteem) to.70 (autonomy support need satisfaction). Based on these results, it was determined that the first criterion of mediation was met (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). See Table 2. Mediation analyses Two structural models were tested to determine if the final two criteria of mediation were met: (1) the hypothesized BNT model (see Figure 2A); and (2) a partially mediated BNT model that added Table 1. Descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and Cronbach alpha estimates for all variables. Variable Autonomy Support Autonomy Competence Relatedness Physical Self-Concept Global Self-Esteem M SD Cronbach s Alpha Note: M =mean; SD = standard deviation; all bivariate correlation estimates p <.01.

9 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 321 Table 2. Factor loadings for the SEM measurement model of hypothesized BNT model. Measured Variable Standardized FL SE Z Autonomy Support Parcel 1 (items 1,5).87 Parcel 2 (items 2,4) Parcel 3 (items 3,6) Need Satisfaction Parcel 1 (autonomy subscale).79 Parcel 2 (competence subscale) Parcel 3 (relatedness subscale) Physical Self-Concept Item 1.84 Item Item Global Self-Esteem Item 4.61 Parcel 1 (items 1,2) Parcel 2 (items 3,5) Note: FL = factor loading; SE = standardized error; x = sample mean score; Parcels represent mean scores of the identified items; all Z scores were significant, p <.01. direct paths from autonomy support and physical self-concept, autonomy support and global selfesteem, and need satisfaction and global self-esteem (see Figure 2B). Results from the two structural models are presented in Table 3. In the hypothesized BNT model, all direct effects were significant (p <.01) as hypothesized. The indirect effects of need satisfaction in the relationship between autonomy support and physical self-concept (β =.23; p<.01) and autonomy support and self-esteem (β =.18; p<.01) were also significant. Finally, the indirect effect of physical self-concept on the relationship between need satisfaction and self-esteem (β =.21; p <.01) was significant. Taken together, these results supported the hypothesized direct and indirect relationships in the hypothesized BNT model. To provide further evidence for the mediating role of need satisfaction and physical self-concept, however, comparison to the partially mediated model was needed. Results from the partially mediated model produced a good fit: χ 2 = ; df = 59; χ 2 /df ratio = 2.52; CFI =.98; TLI =.97; RMSEA =.04. The added direct relationships between autonomy support and physical self-concept (β = -.06; p=.39) and autonomy support and global selfesteem (β = -.05; p=.66) were not significant in providing further evidence for the full mediating effects of need satisfaction in the BNT model. Specifically, (a) there was an association between the predictor (autonomy support), mediator (need satisfaction) and outcome variables (physical self-concept; self-esteem); (b) the direct effects between autonomy support and self-concept were not significant with the mediator (need satisfaction) in the model. The added direct effect between need satisfaction and global self-esteem was, however, significant (β =.17; p<.01). Although the indirect effect between need satisfaction and self-esteem via physical self-concept was stronger (β =.19; p<.01), it was concluded that physical self-concept was only a partial mediator between need satisfaction and self-esteem. A χ 2 difference test between the two models was calculated to determine which displayed a better fit (Holmbeck, 1998). Results Δ χ 2 (3) = 12.97, p<.05 revealed significant differences between the hypothesized BNT model and the partially mediated model, suggesting the partially mediated model had a better fit. It was originally presumed that need satisfaction in PE would only have indirect effects on global self-esteem through physical self-concept based on the domain specificity of physical self-concept/pe and the hierarchical nature of physical self-concept and global self-esteem

10 322 A.C. Garn et al. Figure 2. Direct effects (i.e. standardized beta coefficients) and R 2 values for the hypothesized BNT model (A), partially mediated BNT model (B), and revised BNT model (C) are provided above. (Marsh et al., 2006). BNT theorists do suggest, however, that need satisfaction can impact general psychological functioning (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Because there were both theoretical and statistical justifications, we tested a third model that added a direct path between need satisfaction and global self-esteem (see Figure 2C). The model-data fit indices for this revised model were: χ 2 = ; df = 61; χ 2 /df ratio = 2.47; CFI =.98; TLI =.97; RMSEA =.04. Results of the structural model are also presented in Table 3. Similar to the original model, need satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between autonomy support and physical self-concept and autonomy support and global self-esteem. Need satisfaction had direct effects on physical-concept and global selfesteem and indirect effects on global self-esteem through physical self-concept as expected. The χ 2 differences between this revised BNT model and the partially mediated model were

11 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 323 Table 3. SEM analyses of the hypothesized mediated model and comparison models. Model Paths Stand β SE p value Hypothesized Model Direct Effects S NS NS PSC PSC SE Gen SE Indirect Effects via NS S PSC S Esteem Indirect Effects via PSC NS SE Partially Mediated Model Direct Effects S NS S PSC S SE NS PSC NS SE PSC SE Gen SE Indirect Effects via NS S PSC S Esteem Indirect Effects via PSC NS SE Revised Model Direct Effects S NS NS PSC NS SE PSC SE Gen SE Indirect Effects via NS S PSC S Esteem Indirect Effects via PSC NS SE Note: Stand β = standardized path coefficient; SE = standard error; S = autonomy support; NS = need satisfaction; PSC = physical self-concept; SE = global self-esteem; Gen = gender. again calculated to determine which model produced a better fit. Results Δ χ 2 (3) = 1.70, p>.05 revealed no significant differences between the two models. Thus, the revised BNT model appeared to be the most parsimonious. Discussion The purpose of this study was to examine a BNT model of physical self-concept in a large sample of urban adolescents. Situated in high school PE, autonomy support and need satisfaction were hypothesized to have positive relationships with physical self-concept and global self-esteem. Findings were supportive of BNT (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci et al., 2001; Quested & Duda,

12 324 A.C. Garn et al. 2010; Ryan & Deci, 2007) and accounted for a meaningful amount of variance in global selfesteem (37%), which provides unique contributions to the understanding of self-concept in adolescents participating in PE. Specifically, our data provide empirical support for the relationship between the underlying mechanisms of intrinsic motivation, need satisfaction, and increases in self-concept. In the physical domain, many researchers have used behavioral regulations to examine the processes of developing positive self-perceptions (Hein & Hagger, 2007; Moreno et al., 2008; Thogersen-Ntoumani & Ntoumanis, 2006). Deci and Ryan (2000), however, highlight the powerful nature of need satisfaction in promoting health development and suggest that need satisfaction can have a direct relationship with psychological well-being outcomes. Recently, BNT has proven fruitful in understanding the psychological characteristics of dancers (Quested & Duda, 2010) and athletes (Reinboth & Duda, 2006; Reinboth et al., 2004). This study adds to the BNT work of Duda and her colleagues by exploring different psychological outcomes (i.e. physical selfconcept; global self-esteem) in a different context (PE) with a larger sample. The utility of BNT in inner-city, urban PE is also an important finding in this study. Many students in inner-city, urban high schools face barriers to developing feelings of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in PE ( Cothran & Ennis, 1999; Flory & McCaughtry, 2011). For example, Flroy and McCaughtry (2011) revealed that many urban teachers have limited cultural understanding of their students. This lack of understanding often causes barriers in providing students with meaningful choices in PE and hinders the social connection between teachers and students. The relationships among autonomy support, need satisfaction (feelings of autonomy, competence, and relatedness), and physical self-concept in this study provides valuable information about how to better deliver PE to urban adolescents in ways that are associated with quality personal outcomes. Need satisfaction In the first part of the BNT model, results were supportive of our hypotheses that need satisfaction would mediate the relationship between autonomy support in PE and psychological outcomes. The robust direct path between autonomy support and need satisfaction mirror past studies in PE (Ntoumanis, 2005) and other contexts (Deci et al., 2001). This is consistent with the social context of high school PE, which provides students with numerous opportunities for their psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness to be fulfilled or neglected. For example, students often display their competence publically, have numerous opportunities to interact with peers and teachers, and make choices about their levels of engagement and behaviors. Perceptions of these types of situations can enhance or reduce students need satisfaction in PE. Future research should examine other aspects of the social environment that are linked with feelings of competence and relatedness. Reeve (2006) highlights the importance of classroom structure in developing perceived competence and teacher-student involvement in developing perceived relatedness. Extended observations of the social climate in PE classes could be beneficial to moving beyond autonomy support, and examining the relationship between need support and need satisfaction. The path between need satisfaction and physical self-concept provides empirical support to direct links between need satisfaction and physical self-concept (Deci & Ryan, 1995). Thus, satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs are associated with heightened physical self-concept. Implementing instructional models such as Sport Education (Siedentop, 1994) that promote increased student ownership and decision making opportunities (i.e. autonomy), enhanced skill development (i.e. competence), and positive social interactions (i.e. relatedness)

13 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 325 is a strategy that could potentially increase students levels of overall need satisfaction and promote physical self-concept. The indirect effects of need satisfaction on the relationship between autonomy support and physical self-concept as well as autonomy support and global self-esteem stresses the important role that the social environment in PE can play in domain specific and more global self-concept, if overall need satisfaction is actualized. During a time when high school PE programs are being reduced and sometimes eliminated, much of the support for PE resides in the contributions it can make to students physical health (Standage et al., 2007). Findings from this study provide additional support for the importance of PE by showing the contributions that PE can have on students physical self-concept and global self-esteem, which are considered important outcomes of PE (UKDE, 2012), factors in quality of life (Craven & Marsh, 2008), and foundations of longterm mental health (Trzesniewski et al., 2006). Overall need satisfaction was used by Thogersen-Ntoumani, Ntoumanis, and Nikitaras (2010) in a recent study examining the ability of a process model reflecting BNT principles to predict body image concerns and unhealthy weight control behaviors of adolescent girls. Overall need satisfaction had a negative relationship with body image concerns and an indirect negative effect on weight control behaviors. Taken in conjunction with the findings of this study, overall need satisfaction in physical activity settings appears to buffer adolescents negative self-perceptions such as body image concerns and boost positive self-perceptions such as physical self-concept. Future research should investigate the independent effects of need satisfaction on both positive and negative physical self-perception outcomes within the same investigation. Physical self-concept and global self-esteem Marsh and his colleagues postulate and provide evidence that physical self-concept is an important mediator of engagement in healthy behaviors and optimal functioning (Craven & Marsh, 2008; Marsh & Craven, 2006; Marsh et al., 2006; Marsh et al., 2010). Because physical selfconcept often decreases during adolescence (Marsh et al., 1998), there is a clear need to better understand the mechanisms that enhance adolescents physical self-concept beyond those outlined in Marsh s model. Therefore, it was hypothesized in the second part of the BNT process model that physical self-concept would mediate the relationship between need satisfaction in PE and global self-esteem. Results suggested that physical self-concept acted as a partial mediator between overall need satisfaction in PE and global self-esteem for these participants. Findings from the model testing supported the addition of a direct path between overall need satisfaction and global self-esteem. The indirect effect of physical self-concept in the relationship between need satisfaction and global self-esteem was stronger than the direct path between need satisfaction and global selfesteem, which supports the hierarchical/domain specific nature of Marsh s physical selfconcept model (Marsh et al., 2010). In other words, adolescents perceptions of need satisfaction in PE were more closely linked to the domain specific self-concept outcome (i.e. physical selfconcept) than global self-esteem. Researchers investigating global self-esteem in the physical domain without accounting for physical self-concept may provide an incomplete picture of the relationships among BNT variables and self-concept (Marsh et al., 2006). Conclusions In conclusion, the findings of this study highlight a process through which urban adolescents participation in PE can promote their physical self-concept and global self-esteem. Both physical self-concept and self-esteem are identified as important outcomes of physical education that

14 326 A.C. Garn et al. can benefit students inside and outside of school. BNT appears to be a meaningful framework for understanding urban adolescents self-concept. Because a majority of the sample was African American/Black, generalizations to other populations cannot be made. Future research would benefit from testing the relationships among BNT variables and self-concept in other ethnic groups. Of course, this study is not without limitations. First, the correlational design does not allow for determinations of causation to be made. Future studies should use multi-wave designs over the course of a sustained period of time to develop a better sense of the mediation sequence, possible reciprocal effects among BNT and self-concept variables, and the stability of physical self-concept and global self-esteem (Marsh et al., 2006). Similarly, future research would benefit from differentiating between true self-esteem and contingent self-esteem (see Deci & Ryan, 1995). This distinction could help differentiate stable, internally driven self-esteem (i.e. true self-esteem from more dynamic self-esteem reliant upon external demands. Internal consistency estimates for all three need satisfaction variables above.60 but below.70 could also be considered a weakness. Modifications of the BNSWS may be necessary to better capture the characteristics of urban adolescents perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in urban PE. Nevertheless, the highlighted BNT process model can provide a solid foundation for future researchers to investigate healthy physical self-concept development in adolescents. References Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator- mediator variable distinction in social psychology research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, Byrne, B.M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Coffman, D.L., & MacCallum, R.C. (2005). Using parcels to convert path analysis models into latent variable models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40, Cothran, D.J., & Ennis, C.D. (1999). Along in a crowd: Meeting students needs for relevance and connection in urban high school physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 18, Craven, R.G., & Marsh, H.W. (2008). The centrality of the self-concept construct for psychological wellbeing and unlocking human potential: Implications for child and educational psychologists. Educational & Child Psychology, 25, Deci, E.L. (2001). The sport climate questionnaire. Retrieved August 2011 from the University of Rochester, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology website: SDT/measures/auton_sport.html Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1995). The basis for true self-esteem. In M.H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp ). New York, NY: Plenum Press. Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The what and why of goal pursuits: Human needs and the selfdetermination of human behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, Deci, E.L., Ryan, R.M., Gagne, M., Leone, D., Usunov, J., & Kornazheva, B. (2001). Need satisfaction, motivation, and well-being in the work organizations of a former Eastern Bloc Country: A cross-cultural study of self-determination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, Flory, S.B., & McCaughtry, N. (2011). Culturally relevant physical education in urban schools. Reflecting cultural knowledge. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82, Gomez, J.E., Johnson, B.A., Selva, M., & Sallis, J.F. (2004). Violent crime and outdoor physical activity among inner city youth. Preventative Medicine, 39, Harter, S., Bresnick, S., Bouchey, H.A., & Whitesell, N.R. (1997). The development of multiple role-related selves during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 33, Hein, V., & Hagger, M.S. (2007). Global self-esteem, goal achievement orientations, and self-determined behavioral regulations in a physical education setting. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, Holmbeck, G.N. (1997). Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in the study of mediators and moderators: Examples from the child clinical and pediatric psychology literatures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65,

15 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 327 Hu, L., & Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, Ilardi, B.C., Leone, D., & Kasser, T. (1993). Employee and supervisor ratings of motivation: Main effects and discrepancies associated with job satisfaction and adjustment in a factory setting. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, Lim, B.S.C., & Wang, C.K. (2009). Perceived autonomy support, behavioural regulations in physical education and physical activity intention. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, Little, T.D., Cunningham, W.A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K.F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, Marsh, H.W. (1989). Age and sex effects in multiple dimensions of self-concept: Preadolescence to adulthood. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, Marsh, H.W. (1996). Construct validity of Physical Self-Description Questionnaire responses. Relations to external criteria. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 18, Marsh, H.W., & Craven, R.G. (2006). Reciprocal effects of self-concept and performance from a multidimensional perspective: Beyond seductive pleasure and unidimensional perspectives. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, Marsh, H.W., Martin, A.J., & Jackson, S. (2010). Introducing a short version of the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire: New strategies, short-form evaluative criteria, and applications of factor analyses. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 32, Marsh, H.W., Papaioannou, A., & Theodorakis, Y. (2006). Causal ordering of physical self-concept and exercise behavior: Reciprocal effects model and the influence of physical education teachers. Health Psychology, 25, Michigan Fitness Foundation (2005). Michigan s Exemplary Physical Education Curriculum project: User s guide. Lansing, MI: Michigan Fitness Foundation. National Association for Sport and Physical Education (2004). Moving into the future. National standards for physical education (2nd ed.). Reston, VI: NASPE Publications. Ntoumanis, N. (2005). A prospective study of participation in optional school physical education based on self-determination theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, Preacher, K.J., & Hayes, A.F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavioral Research Methods, 40, Quested, E., & Duda, J.L. (2010). Exploring the social-environmental determinants of well- and ill- being in dances: A test of basic needs theory. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 32, Reeve, J. (2006). Teachers as facilitators: What autonomy-supportive teachers do and why their students benefit. The Elementary School Journal, 106, Reinboth, M., & Duda, J.L. (2006). Perceived motivational climate, need satisfaction, and indices of wellbeing in team sports: A longitudinal perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7, Reinboth, M., Duda, J.L., & Ntoumanis, N. (2004). Dimensions of coaching behavior, need satisfaction, and the psychological and physical welfare of young athletes. Motivation and Emotion, 28, Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2007). Active human nature: Self-determination theory and the promotion and maintenance of sport, exercise, and health. In M.S. Hagger & N.L.D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in exercise and sport (pp. 1 20). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Shrout, P.E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies. New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, Siedentop, D. (1994). Sport education: Quality PE through positive sport experiences. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Standage, M., Gillison, F., & Treasure, D.C. (2007). Self-determination and motivation in physical education. In M.S. Hagger & N.L.D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in exercise and sport (pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Steinberg, L., & Morris, A.S. (2001). Adolescent development. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, Thogersen-Ntoumani, C., & Ntoumanis, N. (2006). The role of self-determined motivation in the understanding of exercise-related behaviors, cognitions, and physical self-evaluations. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, Thogersen-Ntoumani, C., Ntoumanis, N., & Nikitaras, N. (2010). Unhealthy weight control behaviors in adolescent girls: A process model based on self-determination theory. Psychology and Health, 25, Trzesniewski, K.H., Donnellan, M.B., Moffitt, T.E., Robins, R.W., Poulton, R., & Caspi, A. (2006). Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 42,

16 328 A.C. Garn et al. United Kingdom Department of Education (2012). Physical education: Key stage 4, Retrieved from education.gov.uk/schools/teachingandlearning/curriculum/secondary/b /pe/ks3/programme. Wigfield, A., Eccles, J., MacIver, D., Reuman, D., & Midgley, C. (1991). Transitions during early adolescence: Changes in children s domain-specific self-perceptions and general self-esteem across the transition to junior high school. Developmental Psychology, 27, Wilson, P.M., Mack, D.E., Blanchard, C.M., & Gray, C.E. (2009). The role of perceived psychological satisfaction in exercise-related affect. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 6, Wilson, P.M., & Rodgers, W.M. (2002). The relationship between exercise motives and physical self-esteem in female exercise participants: An application of self-determination theory. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 7,