Physical Attractiveness: Effects on Teacher Expectations and Dyadic Interactions in Elementary Age Children

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1 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, , Physical Attractiveness: Effects on Teacher Expectations and Dyadic Interactions in Elementary Age Children Thomas J. Martinek University of North Carolina at Greensboro This study describes the effects of physical attractiveness on teacher expectations and specific teacher-student interactions. Two physical education specialists and their classes served as subjects for the study. Graduate students (n = 30) were asked to rate 141 second, fourth, and sixth grade children from a black and white photo taken of each child. A total of 100 students, from the upper and lower thirds in each grade for both teachers, comprised the sample. Teacher expectations were determined by asking the teachers to rate students according to how they expected each to perform in terms of: (a) physical performance, (b) social relations with peers, (c) cooperative behavior in class, and (d) ability to reason. A dyadic version of Cheffers Adaptation to Flanders Interaction Analysis System was the observational tool used to describe the teacher-student behaviors. Two 2 x 2 x 3 MANOVAs showed that high attractive students were expected to do better in physical performance and to be more socially integrative with peers than low attractive groups. In addition, high attractive students in the sixth grade received more acceptance of their ideas from their teachers. During the past two decades convincing research has shown that teachers' expectations of their students have a profound impact on the way they perform in class (Brophy & Good, 1974; Palardy, 1969; Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968). Many investigators have believed that teacher expectations are one of the most central and intricate mediators operating during the teaching-learning process. Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) administered an IQ test to support this assertion. They told the teachers that this test identified "late bloomers." Twenty percent of the children were randomly selected by the researchers, and their teachers were informed that these children were "late bloomers" and could be expected to do well within the next year. A year after this deception, the same IQ test was administered again to all children. It was found the teachers' expectations did indeed influence the students' performance. The "late bloomers" demonstrated significantly improved IQ scores. In an attempt to explain these results, Rosenthal and Jacobson speculated that the teachers' interactions with the students were a major factor for the differential Request for reprints should be sent to Thomas J. Martinek, Motor and Social Behavior Laboratory, School of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC

2 \ PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS 197 scores. In other words, the teachers may have been more encouraging and friendly to those children whom they expected to "bloom." Consequently, their expectations served as a self-fulfilling prophecy. The tenets underlying the self-fulfilling prophecy also have prgved to be applicable to the physical education setting as well. For instance, Crowe (1977), Martinek and Johnson (1979), and Brown (1979) found a teacher's first impression to affect both the quantity and quality of interactions. Furthermore, it has been suggested that these interactions can have a profound effect on the student's self-concept and performance expectations (Martinek, 1980). Given the consistency of these results, it is important to identify variables that have early effects on the formation of expectations toward others. One important variable from which first impressions are formed is physical attractiveness (Aronson, 1972; Clifford & Walster, 1973; Miller, 1970). Social psychologists have suggested that one's physical attractiveness has its initial impact even in the early beginnings of school. The disconcerting aspect of this is that there is a strong possibility that this phenomenon contains the seeds of a selffulfilling prophecy. Brophy and Good (1974) have cited several studies that have demonstrated that physical attractiveness is noticed and is instrumental in the formation of attitudes and expectations about students. Many of these studies have indicated that physically attractive students are perceived to exhibit more prosocial behavior (Dion, Berschied, & Walster, 1972). Therefore, it would appear that attractive students get a head start in forming a productive relationship with the teacher simply because of their physical attractiveness. In view of the aforementioned, the present study attempted to investigate the role that physical attractiveness plays during physical education instruction. The specific purpose of this study was to determine the effects of physical attractiveness on teacher expectation and dyadic interactions in elementary age children. Subjects Method Two elementary physical education specialists, each from a different school, were selected from the Lee County, North Carolina school system to participate in the study. Both specialists were females and taught physical education to each class 30 minutes each week. Each class was taught a variety of movement activities consisting of games and exploratory tasks for elementary age children. Second, fourth, and sixth grade classes taught by each specialist were randomly selected to serve as participants of the study. A cross section of 141 male, female, and rural elementary school children represented the student population. For each teacher, a group of high attractive and low attractive children from each grade were identified as target groups. This constituted a total sample of 100 students. The groups represented upper and lower third ratings of the student's physical attractiveness. Table 1 provides a breakdown of each group according to teacher and grade. Procedures This investigation was a descriptive study conducted over a 16-week period of instruction during a spring semester. Prior to the initiation of this study, parents of

3 MARTINEK Table 1 A Teacher by Grade by Attractiveness Group Breakdown of 100 Elementary Age Chlldren Grade 2 Grade 4 Grade 6 HighlLow HlghlLow HighlLow Teachers Groups n Grou~s n Grouos n students signed consent forms allowing their child to participate. In addition, both teachers signed consent forms. Because of the nature of the study, the participants were not told that physical attractiveness was a variable under investigation. Instead, they were told that "certain physical, social, and psychological factors as related to student behavior will be looked at." This was a precautionary measure used to prevent a "halo effort" from occurring in the teachers' and students' behavior. Because partial deception was employed, the teachers, students, and parents were debriefed at the conclusion of the study. Rating of attractiveness. During the first week of the study a black and white photograph was taken of each child for the purpose of rating attractiveness. The teacher and children were told that the photographs would be used for identification purposes in coding behaviors. Each photograph was taken against a white background and provided a frontal view of each child (from head to knees). The photographs were then rated by 30 graduate students from the School of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Each rater was asked to rate each child on a scale with weighted values ranging from 5 (high attractive) to 1 (highly unattractive). Student identification numbers were listed on the left-hand side of the rating form. Each number corresponded to the number that was on each of the students' photographs. The raters were instructed to indicate their estimation of the child's overall physical attractiveness. The standard directions on the instrument were as follows: You are about to look at several photographs of elementary age children who are identified by a student number. You are asked to rate each child according to your estimation of his/her physical attractiveness. In order to facilitate this rating process, a rating scale is provided below. Place an "X" over the number that best indicates your estimation of the child's overall physical attractiveness. Remember that your ratings should be based on overall attractiveness rather than on specific aspects of the child's body, that is, glasses, hair, etc. Be sure to make an "X" over the number on the rating sheet that corresponds with the number on the child in each picture. To determine the interrater reliability of the 30 raters, a Cronbach's alpha was derived for each grade as well as for total group ratings. The alpha coefficients were:

4 PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS 199 Grade 2 (n = 44).95; Grade 4 (n = 51).95; Grade 6 (n = 46).97. The total for all grades (n = 141) was.96. The students' mean scores from the ratings were ranked in order and the data divided into equal thirds. The children in the upper third were assigned to the "attractive group" and the children in the lower third were assigned to the "unattractive group." The mean scores for the attractive and unattractive groups were 4.3 (SD = 36) and 2.2 (SD =.81), respectively. The procedure of rating students depicted in photographs rather than a natural setting was employed for two reasons: (a) this would eliminate any teacher or student suspicions raised by visible presence of the raters in the instructional setting; and (b) the technique would partial out any behavioral patterns or dispositions of the child that may interact with raters' perceptions of physical attractiveness. According to Berschied and Walster (1974) the use of photographs along with consensus ratings have been the most valid and reliable means of determining level of attractiveness in social psychological research. Determining teacher expectations. During the first week of the study, the physical education teachers rated their students on a scale that indicated their expectations for each student on the following variables: (a) overall performance in physical skill; (b) social relations with peers; (c) cooperative behavior during class; and (d) ability to reason. Because both teachers had been working with the same students during the first half of the school year, they had a basis upon which to complete their ratings on the instrument. A rating form with the child's name was given to the teacher to rate each child in terms of the four expectancy variables. The teacher was asked to assign to each student a weighted value ranging from 7 (very high expectations) to 1 (very low expectations). In a previous pilot study the rating instrument showed high test-retest reliability when given to three elementary classroom teachers who taught physical education to their respective classes. The test-retest time interval was 3 weeks. The correlations for the three teachers ranged from.94 to.88 for Variable 1;.96 to.90 for Variable 2;.93 to.89 for Variable 3; and.88 to.83 for Variable 4. The standard directions on the instrument were as follows: Next to each statement below, indicate how you would expect the above student to be during the instructional phases of your program. Place an "X" over the number that indicates your level of expectation. Remember: Rate each student according to your own expectations for that child. Observational coding system. A dyadic adaption of Cheffers Adaptation of Flanders Interaction Analysis System (CAFIAS) (Cheffers, Mancini, & Martinek, 1980; Martinek & Mancini, 1979) was the observational tool used to identify specific interaction patterns found between the teachers and the high and low attractive groups. Because interaction between a single student and the teacher were of primary concern in this study, the dyadic adaptation was employed in order to provide a method to record and analyze these interactions. CAFIAS was originally designed to describe predominant interaction patterns between the teacher and groups of students. Concurrent validity was reported at p <.05 using the blind-live interpretation method when compared with Flanders System (Cheffers et al., 1980). An additional category was added by Cheffers to describe analytic student responses. Furthermore, this system was designed for use in physical education

5 MARTINEK Table 2 CAFIAS Tea~her~Student Behavlors Teacher Talk Behaviors Acceptance of student feelings Praiselencouragement Acceptance and use of student Ideas Questions given to student Lecturing and information-giving Criticism given to student Student Talk Behaviors Predictable student response Analytic student response Student Initiated response Student sllence andlor confusion classes and is capable of identifying both verbal and nonverbal behaviors. The CAFIAS categories are outlined in Table 2. Codingprocedures. Two graduate students from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro served as coders for the present study. Both coders received approximately 25 hours of training. Training included an examination of the CAFIAS categories and ground rules, the use of videotape, discussion, and coding "live" in various instructional classes. To determine interobserver reliability, both analyzed two separate classes together. The Spearman Coefficient of rank correlations was used to compare the top 10 matrix cells of each coder. The correlations between the coders for the two classes were.86 and.90. Each grade for each teacher was coded four times, making a total of 24 observations (12 observations per teacher). Observation times were randomly selected over the 16 weeks of instruction. Data were converted to behaviors per class scores by dividing the total number of behaviors recorded by the number of observations made for each grade and teacher. Although dyadic interactions between the teacher and each student were recorded, only the data from those selected as high and low attractive groups were used in the final analyses. The process for coding the dyadic interaction was facilitated by the following procedures: 1. The students wore their assigned ID numbers on pinafores. 2. The coders only coded the interactions on what transpired between the teacher and a single student. Teaching behaviors directed at two or more students were not recorded. 3. All behavior tallies were accompanied by a numbered subscript representing the individual student to or from whom the behavior was directed. 4. Behavior was recorded at 3-sec intervals as long as the interaction continued. 5. Behaviors were recorded for 20-min periods for each class. Results Two 2 x 2 x 3 MANOVAs described differences among high and low attractive groups, teachers, and grade level on the following dependent measures: (a) the four teacher expectancy variables, and (b) behaviors measured by CAFIAS. Multivariate procedures are considered appropriate statistics when investigating group differences and multiple dependent measures. MANOVA procedures not only facilitate

6 PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS 20 1 univariate analyses with each dependent variable, but they also provide a test of significance to determine whether the means when considered simultaneously are equal. Teacher Expectations The analysis revealed a significant multivariate main effect for attractiveness group, F (4,85) = 2.79, p <.05, and a significant multivariate teacher by grade interaction, F (8,170) = 2.21, p <.05. Specifically, univariate analyses revealed significant differences in the following dependent variables: 1. Overall performance in physical skills. A significant difference was found between high and low attractive groups in terms of ex3ected physical performance, F (1,88) = 9.40, p <.01. High attractive groups were rated significantly higher (M = 4.72) than low attractive groups (M = 3.98). 2. Social relations withpeers. A significant difference was found between high and low attractive groups in terms of expected social relations with peers, F (1,88) = 4.65, p <.05. High attractive groups were rated significantly higher (M = 4.70) than low attractive groups (M = 4.14). 3. Cooperative behavior during class. A significant teacher by grade interaction was found in terms of expected cooperative behavior during class, F (2,88) = 3.69, p <.05. It was found that for Teacher 2, expectations were significantly higher for grades 4 (M = 5.33) and 6 (M = 6.25) than for grade 2 (M = 4.31). Nonsignificant grade differences were found for Teacher 1. Teacher-Student Behaviors The MANOVA revealed significant interactions across the CAFIAS categories for teacher by grade, F (8,170) = 2.83, p<.001, and attractiveness by grade, F{22,156) = 1.86, p <.01. Specifically, univariate analyses revealed significant differences in the following dependent variables: 1. Acceptance of student feelings. There was a significant teacher by grade interaction, F (2,88) = 4.85, p <.01. Teacher 1 exhibited significantly more empathy for grade 2 (M = 2.56) than for grades 4 (M = 59) and 6 (M = 2.18). Teacher 2, however, exhibited significantly more for grade 4 (M = 3.92) than for grades 2 (M =.18) and 6 (M = 2.08). 2. Praise/encouragement. A teacher by grade interaction was found, F (2,88) = 9.90, p <.001. It was found that for Teacher 1, grade 2 (M = 3.37) received significantly more praise than grades 4 (M = 59) and 6 (M = 1.45). It was found that for Teacher 2, however, grade 6 (M = 4.08) received significantly more than grades 2 (M = 1.50) and 4 (M = 3.16). 3. Acceptance and use of students' ideas. A significant group by grade interaction was indicated, F (2,88) = 13.30, p <.001. It was found that high attractive sixth grade students experienced significantly more acceptance and use of thkir ideas (M = 2.76) than low attractive students (M = -18). No significant differences were indicated for grades 2 and 4. Teacher Expectations Discussion One of the hypotheses underlying this investigation was that a child's physical at-

7 MARTINEK tractiveness served as a viable antecedent in the forming of teachers' expectations. The results of this study indicate that students' physical attractiveness was significantly associated with the teachers' expectations for overall physical performance as well as for expected social relations with peers. It was also found that for one of the teachers, expectations for cooperative behavior during class was significantly higher for grades 4 and 6 than for grade 2. A closer interpretation of the data indicated that attractive children, regardless of age, appear to impress their teachers in terms of their potential physical ability in physical education. One might conclude from this finding that physical educators view physical performance and physical attractiveness as related variables. In other words, physical skill and appearance appear to go hand-in-hand. Zaichkowsky, Zaichkowsky, and Martinek (1980) have suggested that appearance and performance expectation represent an important relationship that all too often determines the behavior and performance for the child in physical education instruction. Furthermore, it is possible that students who perform well in physical skills may be viewed as attractive within the context of the gym. On the other hand, their attractiveness may not be as prevalent within other contexts, such as the classroom or other social situations. Therefore, the reader is cautioned in generalizing this relationship to other environmental settings. Cratty (1967) has indicated that one possible explanation for the existence of this relationship may be that physical attributes such as body size and weight represent salient features typically used by physical educators in perceiving attractiveness. Although these variables were not specified in the present study, it is suggested that future research efforts include student somatotype and teacher expectation as focal points of study (Hatfield & Landers, 1978). Further analyses revealed that attractive children are expected to have more positive relations with their peers. Because there were no interaction effects among the independent variables of teacher, grade, and attractiveness, this finding was found to be true for both teachers among all three grades. In assuming that attractiveness breeds popularity, the teachers in this study were undoubtedly perceiving reality clearly. The positive relationship between attractiveness and social prowess has been substantiated by other studies that have shown that a child's appearance is an important indicator of how well students will be liked by others (Brislin & Lewis, 1968; Dion, Berschied, & Walster, 1972). For example, Dion and Berschied (Note 1) found that attractive children in the primary grades were not only better liked than unattractive children, but unattractive children were considered to be more aggressive than attractive counterparts. This was found to be especially true for boys. Furthermore, when asked who scared them most, unattractive children were typically named. Of course, it may very well be that the unattractive children in the study did, in fact, display more antisocial behavior toward peers and teachers simply because they perceived themselves as being rejected. Consequently, the teachers' expectations become prophetic. It is important to note whether the child's attractiveness and gender interacted with the ratings of the two teachers (both females). It may be asked, for example, whether attractiveness is more important in shaping teachers' expectations about girls than about boys and, if so, if this holds true for all grade levels. Although this study was not initially designed to answer such questions, a secondary analysis was made to determine whether these variables interact in a significant way. It was found that they do not. Regardless of the sex and the grade of children, their physical at-

8 PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS 203 tractiveness has an equally strong association with their teachers' expectations for them. Dyadic Interactions Much of the social psychological research pertaining to physical attractiveness has looked primarily at its relationship to various teacher expectancy variables. Very little, if any, has focused on how a child's appearance affects the quality of interactions between the teacher and student. Consequently, this study also attempted to describe the effects of physical attractiveness on specific dyadic interaction variables within the physical education setting. The data analysis suggests that differential behavior among the teachers and high and low attractive groups was found to be unique for one of the CAFIAS variables: teacher acceptance and use of the students' ideas. Specifically, it was found that for each class taught, the ideas and actions of the high attractive sixth grade students (M = 2.76) appeared to be more frequently accepted and used by the teachers than were low attractive students (M =.18). This finding may imply that as children grow older their physical attractiveness becomes a more pervasive mediator of teacher acceptance. Because sixth grade represents a time in which acceptance is a prime requisite for establishing social identity, perceived unacceptance from the teacher could have devastating consequences for low attractive students. Goffman (1963) contends that this induces a sense of imperfection and causes the child to continually negotiate various ways to be socially accepted. Also, variation between the two teachers in this study were identified on six of the CAFIAS variables. As pointed out in an earlier study by Martinek and Johnson (1979), these differences can be largely attributed to the unique personality makeup of teachers and should be considered when generalizing these results to larger populations of teachers. Because these differences only interacted with the grade variable on two of the CAFIAS categories, however, the variability found in teachers did not appear to influence the remaining variables in question. Also, because this study only used two teachers, the generalizability of the data is somewhat limited. Therefore, other researchers interested in similar directions of study may want to incorporate a greater number of teachers in their studies. ' Conclusion It is feasible to assume that attractive students are perceived as potentially better performers and more socially integrative. Results of the study also suggest that teachers' acceptance of students' ideas were more apparent with attractive students-especially those in the upper grades. It is important to recognize, however, that this study was descriptive and does not suggest that physical attractiveness is a highly manipulative variable. Obviously, it is not easy to change a child's looks. But when the child and/or teacher is unable to control attractiveness, teachers need to be certain that the children's physical features do not function as a major determinant in emotional, social, intellectual, and physical development. Although the present investigation attempted to describe the impact of attractiveness on expectation and communication, other questions still remain unanswered. For instance, is the body size or weight of the child a salient feature in

9 MARTINEK rating attractiveness? To what extent does the child's expressive behavior interact with the attractiveness variable? Does the attractiveness of the teacher have any bearing on the interaction and perception of high and low attractive students? How do social situations and individual differences interact with the attractiveness variable? To the extent that we can identify those variables which have a significant influence on teacher expectations and communication during instruction, we can begin to devise more effective ways of facilitating control over teacher behavior. Reference Note 1. Dion, K., & Berschied, E. Physical attractiveness and sociometric choice in nursery school children. Unpublished manuscript, References Aronson, E. The social animal. San Francisco: Freeman, Berschied, E., & Walster, E. Physical attractiveness. Advances in experimental social psychology, 1974, 7. (Monograph) Brislin, R., & Lewis, S. Dating and physical attractiveness: A replication. Psychological Reports, 1968, 22, Brophy, J., & Good, T. Teacher-student relationships. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Brown, J. A descriptive study of dyadic teacher-student interactions in physical education activity classes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Cheffers, J., Mancinci, V., & Martinek, T. Interaction analysis: An application to verbal and non-verbal activity. Minneapolis, MN: P:S. Amidon, Clifford, M., & Walster, E. The effect of physical attractiveness on teacher expectations. Sociology of Education, 1973, 46, Cratty, B. Social dimensions in physical activity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Crowe, P. An observational study of teachers' expectancy effects and their mediating mechanisms on students in physical education classes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina at Greenboro, Dion, K., Berschied, E., & Walster, E. What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1972, 24, Goffman, E. Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Hatfield, B., & Landers, D. Observer expectancy effects upon appraisal of gross motor performance. Research Quarterly, 1978, 49, Martinek, T. Students' expectations as related to a teacher's expectations and self-concepts of elementary age children. Perceptual and Motor Skills , Martinek, T., & Johnson, S. Teacher expectations: Effects on dyadic interactions and selfconcept in elementary age children. Research Quarterly, 1979, 50, Martinek, T., & Mancini, V. CAFIAS: Observing dyadic interaction between teacher and student. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 1979, 14, Miller, A. Role of physical attractiveness in impression formation. Psychonomic Science, 1970, 19, Palardy, M. What teachers believe-what children achieve. Elementary School Journal, 1969, 69,

10 PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS 205 Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. Pygmalion in the classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Zaichkowsky, L., Zaichkowsky, L., & Martinek, T. Growth and development-the child in physical activity. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby, Manuscript submitted: March 19, 1981 Revision received: May 26, 1981