LEARNING. Learning. Type of Learning Experiences Related Factors

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1 LEARNING DEFINITION: Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior or modification in behavior or behavior potentials that occur as a result of practice or experience. According to Woodworth (1945) any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual (in any respect, good or bad), and makes him alter behavior and experiences different from what they would otherwise have been. FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING: Learning process is centered on three elements: the learner, the teacher, and the type of experiences or training required for modification in the learner s behavior. Learning Learner Related Factors 1. Physical and mental Health 2. Potential of the learner 3. Level of aspiration and achievement motivation 4. Goals of Life 5. Readiness and Will power Type of Learning Experiences Related Factors 1. Nature of Learning Experiences 2. Methodology of Learning 3. Proper feedback and reinforcement 4. Selection of the suitable learning methods and teaching. Men and Material Related Factors. 1. Quality of the teacher 2. Socio emotional climate available in the institution. 3. Availability of learning materials and teaching learning aids. 4. Proper conductive environment and learning situations.

2 THEORIES OF LEARNING: 1. Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning theory involves learning a new behavior via the process of association. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. Classical conditioning was first experimentally demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov through the conditioning of a dog to salivate when it heard a bell. Through this experiment Pavlov successfully demonstrated that the artificial stimulus (bell) become as strong as to produce salivation even when it was not accompanied by the natural stimulus (food). He referred to it as conditioning of the dog resulting in its learning to get food with the ringing of the bell. Actually most of our behavior may be adjudged to be the product of conditioning. One who fears snake may be seen to have fear of any object that looks like a snake. Responding to the stimuli in such a generalized way is known as Stimulus generalization. The opposite of generalization is discrimination. This is the process by which we learn to respond to one specific stimulus and to inhibit the responses to all other stimuli. The phenomenon of extinction occurs when the subject learns to inhibit the conditioned response. In case the responses suddenly reappear on their own, the phenomenon is termed as spontaneous recovery. 2. Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning (also called "instrumental conditioning") is a type of learning in which (a) the strength of a behavior is modified by the behavior's consequences, such as reward or punishment, and (b) the behavior is controlled by antecedents called "discriminative stimuli" which come to signal those consequences. The success of operant conditioning is dependent on the right choice of a reinforcement schedule. the appropriate reinforcement of the step by step successive approximation of the desired behavior called shaping, may result in learning of he most complex behavior. The techniques of operant conditioning have been found to be quite useful in the field of behavior modification, programmed learning and computer assisted instruction. 3. Theory of trial and error: This theory is propagated by Thorndike. It emphasizes that we learn through trial and error mechanism. In trying to learn a correct behavior one tries hard in so many ways and may commit so many errors before striking upon a chance success. On subsequent trials we may learn to avoid the mistakes, repeat the correct moves and finally learn the proper way. Thorndike also propagated certain important laws of learning, like the law of readiness (i.e. one can learn if one is ready to learn), law of exercise (i.e. learning needs repetition of drill) and law of effect(i.e. the effect of consequences decides the fate of one s learning). 4. Insightful learning: Advanced by the gestalists, emphasized that human learning is always purposeful and goal directed and essentially based on one s cognitive powers. Kohler, on the basis of his learning experiments performed on apes concluded that a) a learner always perceives a situation in a gestalt form i.e. as a whole, b) evaluates all

3 the relationships and factors involved in the situation, and c) then arrives at a insightful solution. TRANSFER OF TRAINING: Transfer of training refers to the effect that knowledge or abilities acquired in one area have on problem solving or knowledge acquisition in other areas. Transfer of training is based on the theory of transfer of learning. There are three types of transfer of training: Positive Transfer This is when prior learning or training facilitates acquiring a new skill or reaching the solution to a new problem. In this situation the individual performs better than he would have without the prior training. Negative Transfer This is when prior learning or training hinders acquiring a new skill or reaching the solution to a new problem. In this situation the individual performs worse than that he would have had he not been exposed to the prior training. Zero Transfer In this situation, past experience or training neither enhances nor hinders acquiring a new skill or reaching the solution of a new problem. PROGRAMMED LEARNING: Programmed learning (or programmed instruction) is a research-based system which helps learners work successfully. The method is guided by research done by a variety of applied psychologists and educators. The learning material is in a kind of textbook or teaching machine or computer. The medium presents the material in a logical and tested sequence. The text is in small steps or larger chunks. After each step, learners are given a question to test their comprehension. Then immediately the correct answer is shown. This means the learner at all stages makes responses, and is given immediate knowledge of results.

4 PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS DEFINITION OF PROBLEM: A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question. The purpose of a problem statement is to: 1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to follow. 2. Place the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated. 3. Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information. SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS: 1. Experience 2. Technology 3. Fieldtrips 4. Open classroom 5. Multiple textbooks 6. Independent study programs 7. Educational organizations 8. In-science programs 9. Special education 10. Case studies 11. Self image analysis 12. Vocational objective etc. Apart from that documentary resources, personal resources, library resources can be acted as an important role as source of research problems. TYPES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM: Research problems can be broadly categorized into two types 1) solvable problems and 2) unsolvable problems. A solvable problem is one that raises a question which can be answered with the use of our normal capabilities. And unsolvable problem is

5 one that raises question which can t be answered with our normal capacities. The main distinction between solvable problem and unsolvable problem is that solvable problems can empirically be solved by studying observable events; where as unsolvable problems can be empirically studied. DEFINITION OF HYPOTHESIS: A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Mc.Guigan defined hypothesis as a testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables that is advanced as potential solution to the problem. Kerlinger has defined hypothesis as a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables. Hypotheses are always in declarative sentence form, and they relate, either generally or specifically, variables to variables. CRITERIA FOR A GOOD HYPOTHESIS When a hypothesis has been formulated, the investigator must determine whether or not the formulated hypothesis is good. There are several criteria of characteristics of a good research hypothesis. A good hypothesis is one which meets such criteria or incorporates such characteristics to large extent. Some of these characteristics are mentioned below 1. A hypothesis should be conceptually cleared A good research hypothesis is one which is best upon operationally defined concepts. And these definitions must be commonly accepted and communicable. 2. A hypothesis must be testable - It should be formulated in a way that can be tested directly and found to be probable true or probable false. 3. The hypothesis should be economical and parsimonious - If several hypothesis are offered to test a research problems, the most economical and parsimonious ones should be preferred to hypothesis involving lesser monetary expenses. 4. Hypothesis should be related to existing body of theory and fact If the investigator advances a hypothesis, which seems to him of interest but which is not related to the existing body of theory of facts, cannont be a good research hypothesis. 5. The hypothesis should have logical unity and comprehensiveness If several hypothesis can be formulated regarding same research problem, the most logical comprehensive one should be preferred. 6. The hypothesis should be general in scope - A general hypothesis permits several deduction and thus explains several facts at a time. Therefore a general hypothesis should be preferred. However two broad problems can often be vague and can t be tested.

6 7. The hypothesis should be related to available scientific tools and techniques - A hypothesis, about which data can t be collected because no scientific tools or techniques are available, can t be good research hypothesis. 8. A hypothesis should be in accord with other hypothesis at the same field If any hypothesis satisfies this criterion it can be claimed a good research hypothesis. TYPES OF HYPOTHESES: There are different types of hypotheses: Simple hypothesis - this predicts the relationship between a single independent variable (IV) and a single dependent variable (DV) Complex hypothesis - this predicts the relationship between two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables. Directional hypotheses These are usually derived from theory. They may imply that the researcher is intellectually committed to a particular outcome. They specify the expected direction of the relationship between variables i.e. the researcher predicts not only the existence of a relationship but also its nature. Non-directional hypotheses Used when there is little or no theory, or when findings of previous studies are contradictory. They may imply impartiality. Do not stipulate the direction of the relationship. Associative and causal hypotheses Associative hypotheses Propose relationships between variables - when one variable changes, the other changes. Do not indicate cause and effect. Causal hypothesese Propose a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables.

7 The independent variable is manipulated to cause effect on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is measured to examine the effect created by the independent variable. Null hypotheses These are used when the researcher believes there is no relationship between two variables or when there is inadequate theoretical or empirical information to state a research hypothesis Null hypotheses can be: simple or complex; Associative or causal. Testable hypotheses Contain variables that are measurable or able to be manipulated. They need to predict a relationship that can be 'supported' or 'not supported' based on data collection and analysis.