Introduction. Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

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2 Introduction It was not until 1900 that biology finally caught up with Gregor Mendel. Independently, Karl Correns, Erich von Tschermak, and Hugo de Vries all found that Mendel had explained the basic rules of heredity 35 years before. Still, doubts remained about Mendel s laws of segregation and independent assortment until evidence had mounted that his mysterious factors were, in fact, genes located on chromosomes, which are made of DNA (and proteins). Lots of this evidence was revealed at Columbia University in Manhattan s upper west side. You meet interesting people in NYC. I m the one on the left.

3 1. Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycles Around 1900, scientists began to see obvious parallels between the behavior of chromosomes and the behavior of Mendel s factors. Chromosomes and genes are both present in pairs in diploid cells. Homologous chromosomes separate and alleles segregate during meiosis. Gametes get one from each pair. Fertilization restores the paired condition for both chromosomes and genes, just as Mendel had described.

4 Around 1902, Walter Sutton, Theodor Boveri, and others noted these parallels and a chromosome theory of inheritance began to take form. Fig. 15.1

5 3. Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located on the same chromosome Sutton correctly deduced that each chromosome has hundreds or thousands of genes. Genes located on the same chromosome, linked genes, tend to be inherited together because the chromosome is passed along as a unit. Results of crosses with linked genes deviate from those expected according to independent assortment. What would Mendel s dihybrid F 2 s be like with linked genes? Let s sketch it out.

6 Thomas Hunt Morgan, while still an undergraduate student of Sutton s at Columbia, observed this linkage and its deviations when he followed the inheritance of characters for body color and wing size. The wild-type (dominant) body color is gray (b + ) and the mutant black (b). The wild-type wing size is normal (vg + ) and the mutant has vestigial (small, undeveloped) wings (vg). Morgan crossed F 1 heterozygous females (b + bvg + vg) with homozygous recessive males (bbvgvg). Notice this is not a classic F 1 cross like we just sketched out. How is it different?

7 According to independent assortment, this should produce 4 phenotypes in a 1:1:1:1 ratio. Surprisingly, Morgan observed a large number of wild-type (gray-normal) and double-mutant (black-vestigial) flies among the offspring. These phenotypes correspond to those of the parents. Here are his actual numbers.

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10 Morgan reasoned that body color and wing shape are usually inherited together because their genes are on the same chromosome.

11 The other two phenotypes (grayvestigial and black-normal) were fewer than expected from independent assortment (1:1:1:1 expected), and totally unexpected from dependent assortment (1:1:0:0 expected). So what gives, they wondered. Are they linked or not?

12 Most of the offspring had parental phenotypes, suggesting linkage between the genes. However, 17% of the flies were recombinants, suggesting incomplete linkage of some sort.

13 Morgan proposed that some mechanism occasionally exchanged segments between homologous chromosomes. This switched alleles between homologous chromosomes. The actual mechanism, crossing over during prophase I, results in the production of more types of gametes than one would predict by Mendelian rules alone. Fig. 15.5a

14 Crossing over between these two genes doesn t happen in the formation of every gamete, so just some of many millions of gametes had recombined genes. Fig. 15.5b

15 5. Geneticists can use recombination data to map a chromosome s genetic loci One of Morgan s students, Alfred Sturtevant, used crossing over of linked genes to develop a method for constructing a chromosome map. This map is an ordered list of the genetic loci (the physical location of a gene on a chromosome) along a particular chromosome.

16 Sturtevant hypothesized that the frequency of recombinant offspring reflected the distances between genes on a chromosome. The farther apart two genes are, the higher the probability that a crossover will occur between them and therefore a higher number of recombinant offspring. Why????? The greater the distance between two genes, the more points between them where chiasmata form and crossing over can occur. Sturtevant used recombination frequencies from fruit fly crosses to map the relative position of genes along chromosomes, a linkage map.

17 Sturtevant used the test cross design to map the relative position of three fruit fly genes, body color (b), wing size (vg), and eye color (cn). The recombination frequency between cn and b is 9%. The recombination frequency between cn and vg is 9.5%. The recombination frequency between b and vg is 17%. The only possible arrangement of these three genes places the eye color gene between the other two. Fig. 15.6

18 Sturtevant expressed the distance between genes, the recombination frequency, as map units. One map unit (sometimes called a centimorgan) is equivalent to a 1% recombination frequency. You may notice that the three recombination frequencies in our mapping example are not quite additive: 9% (b-cn) + 9.5% (cnvg) > 17% (b-vg). This results from multiple crossing over events. A second crossing over cancels out the first and reduced the observed number of recombinant offspring. Genes farther apart (for example, b-vg) are more likely to experience multiple crossing over events.

19 Some genes on a chromosome are so far apart that a crossover between them is virtually certain. In this case, the frequency of recombination reaches its maximum value of 50% and the genes act as if found on separate chromosomes and are inherited independently. In fact, several of the pea plant genes studied by Mendel are located on the same chromosome. For example, seed color and flower color are linked, but far enough apart that linkage is not observed. Plant height and pod shape should show linkage, but Mendel never reported results of this cross. Hmmm..

20 Student Objectives: How do the events of meiosis explain the observations of Thomas Morgan? How can recombination during meiosis be explained? How can recombination during meiosis be utilized to locate genes on chromosomes and establish their relative distances?

21 A linkage map provides an imperfect picture of a chromosome. Map units indicate relative distance and order, not precise locations of genes. The frequency of crossing over is not actually uniform over the length of a chromosome. More recent techniques show the absolute distances between gene loci in DNA nucleotides. Chromosome mapping using crossover information is becoming a thing of the past, but it sometimes is on the AP test, so suck it up. Let s do some practice problems. Worksheet 21-23

22 Now how about this AP meiosis/crossing over lab? If it doesn t work, try these pictures.

23 1. The chromosomal basis of sex Although the anatomical and physiological differences between women and men are numerous, the chromosomal basis of sex is rather simple. In human and other mammals, there are two varieties of sex chromosomes, X and Y. This was also discovered at Columbia, by Nettie Stevens in An individual who inherits two X chromosomes usually develops as a female. An individual who inherits an X and a Y chromosome usually develops as a male.

24 Can you tell which of these two birds is the female?

25 News Flash!!!!!!!! Top three candidates for Man of the Year!

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29 This X-Y system of mammals is not the only chromosomal mechanism of determining sex. Other options include the X-0 system, the Z-W system, and the haplodiploid system. But hold on a minute on the birds Fig. 15.8

30 In the X-Y system, Y and X chromosomes behave as homologous chromosomes during meiosis. In reality, they only share a few genes and rarely undergo crossing over. In both testes (XY) and ovaries (XX), the two sex chromosomes segregate during meiosis and each gamete receives one. Each egg receives an X chromosome. Half the sperm receive an X chromosome and half receive a Y chromosome, so the sperm cell determines the sex of the offspring. Because of this, each conception has about a fifty-fifty chance of producing a particular sex.

31 Around 1995, someone figured out more about sex determination. In humans, the anatomical signs of sex first appear when the embryo is two months old. In individuals with the SRY gene (Sex determining Region of the Y chromosome), the embryonic gonads (gamete producing organs) are modified into testes. In addition, other genes on the Y chromosome are necessary for the production of functional sperm. In individuals lacking the SRY gene (those having two X chromosomes), the embryonic gonads develop into ovaries.

32 Maleness is exhibited in many species

33 Gynandro-whaaaat???

34 Gynandromorphs are what these birds are called, and some folks from Edinburgh figured them out. When the Z and W chromosomes don t divide as they should, some cells end up with a Z and some with a W, and those cells become male and female. Occurring at the first division, this results in a half male, half female. They end up being sterile. Another odd one, the platypus has TEN sex chromosomes per cell. A male is XYXYXYXYXY.

35 2. Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome Thomas Hunt Morgan made another big discovery. Like Mendel, Morgan made an insightful choice as an experimental animal, Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly species that eats fungi on fruit. Fruit flies are prolific breeders and have a generation time of two weeks. They are cheap and easy to maintain Fruit flies have three pairs of autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes (XX in females, XY in males). Mating could be easily controlled by placing the future mom and pop in the same milk bottle in his lab known as The Fly Room.

36 Morgan spent a year looking for variant individuals among the flies he was breeding. He discovered a single male fly with white eyes instead of the usual red. Imagine the excitement that day in the lab!!! The normal character phenotype is the wild type. Alternative traits are mutant phenotypes. Fig. 15.2

37 When Morgan crossed his white-eyed male with a red-eyed female, all the F 1 offspring had red eyes, The red allele appeared dominant to the white allele. Crosses between the F 1 offspring produced the classic 3:1 phenotypic ratio in the F 2 offspring. Surprisingly, though, the white-eyed trait appeared only in males, definitely not Mendelian. All the females and half the males had red eyes. Like Mendel before him, Morgan now had some results that needed to be explained by some kind of model. Morgan concluded that a fly s eye color was linked to its sex.

38 Morgan deduced that the gene with the white-eyed mutation is on the X chromosome alone, a sexlinked gene. Females (XX) may have two red-eyed alleles and have red eyes or may be heterozygous and have red eyes. Males (XY) have only a single allele and will be red eyed if they have a red-eyed allele or white-eyed if they have a white-eyed allele. Fig. 15.3

39 2. Sex-linked genes have unique patterns of inheritance In addition to their role in determining sex, the sex chromosomes, especially the X chromosome, have genes for many traits unrelated to sex. These sex-linked genes follow the same pattern of inheritance as the white-eye locus in Drosophila. Fig. 15.9

40 If a sex-linked trait is due to a recessive allele, a female will have this phenotype only if she is homozygous. Heterozygous females will be carriers. Because males have only one X chromosome (hemizygous), any male receiving the recessive allele from his mother (right?) will have the trait. Because mutant alleles are usually rare, the chance of a female inheriting two of the same kind is much less than the chance of a male inheriting just one. Therefore, males are far more likely to inherit sexlinked recessive disorders than are females. What do you think we should name some of these fruit fly genes? Open this - Saved copy.

41 b. Some traits are determined by genes on sex chromosomes. To demonstrate your understanding, make sure you can explain examples like: Sex-linked genes reside on sex chromosomes (X in humans). In mammals and flies, the Y chromosome is very small and carries few genes. In mammals and flies, females are XX and males are XY; as such, X-linked recessive traits are always expressed in males. Some traits are sex limited, and expression depends on the sex of the individual, such as milk production in female mammals and pattern baldness in males.

42 Several serious human disorders are sex-linked. Duchenne muscular dystrophy affects one in 3,500 males born in the United States. Affected individuals rarely live past their early 20s. This disorder is due to the absence of an X-linked gene for a key muscle protein, called dystrophin. The disease is characterized by a progressive weakening of the muscles and loss of coordination. The two traits you should remember are red-green colorblindness and hemophilia.

43 Hemophilia is a sex-linked recessive trait defined by the absence of one or more blood clotting factors. Individuals with hemophilia have prolonged bleeding because a firm clot forms slowly. Bleeding in muscles and joints can be painful and lead to serious damage. Individuals can be treated with intravenous injections of the missing protein. Let s review these blood-related heredity examples. Queen Victoria? And now how about that sex-linked worksheet?

44 Q1: Chi Square A hetero red eyed female was crossed with a red eyed male. The results are shown below. Red eyes are sex-linked dominant to white, determine the chi square value. Round to the nearest hundredth. Phenotype # flies observed Red Eyes 134 White Eyes 66

45 Chi Square Strategy Given observed You have to figure out expected. Usually to do a Punnett square to figure this out Plug in + +

46 Observed 134 red eyes, 66 white eyes Expected X R X R X R X R X r X R X r Chi-Square red + whit e Y X R Y 3:1 ratio = red X r Y ( ) 2 / (66-50) 2 /50 50 white

47 1. Pedigree analysis reveals Mendelian patterns in human inheritance Rather than manipulate mating patterns of people (a bit impractical and unethical), geneticists analyze the results of matings that have already occurred. In a pedigree analysis, information about the presence/absence of a particular phenotypic trait is collected from as many individuals in a family as possible and across generations. The distribution of these characters is then mapped on the family tree.

48 For example, the occurrence of widows peak (W) is dominant to a straight hairline (w). The relationship among alleles can be integrated with the phenotypic appearance of these traits to predict the genotypes of members of this family.

49 For example, if an individual in the third generation lacks a widow s peak, but both her parents have widow s peaks, then her parents must be heterozygous for that gene If some siblings in the second generation lack a widow peak and one of the grandparents (first generation) also lacks one, then we know the other grandparent must be heterozygous and we can determine the genotype of almost all other individuals. Notice the colored symbol is the dominant trait. Fig

50 We can use the same family tree to trace the distribution of attached earlobes (f), a recessive characteristic. Notice the colored-in trait is the recessive one here. Individuals with a dominant allele (F) have free earlobes. Some individuals may be ambiguous, especially if they have the dominant phenotype and could be heterozygous or homozygous dominant. So let s practice. Fig

51 Some phenotypes have a distinctly southern flavor.

52 No fooling? Turns out these human traits aren t always what they are represented to be. Cats may be cooler to work with. Check this out. How about a little project for your camera phone?

53 Speaking of southern traditions Let s practice what we have learned with the Blue People of Kentucky: ople.asp

54 Here is yet another curious fact about females Although female mammals inherit two X chromosomes, only one X chromosome is active. Therefore, males and females have the same effective dose (one copy ) of genes on the X chromosome. During female development, one X chromosome per cell condenses into a compact object, a Barr body. This inactivates most of its genes. The condensed Barr body chromosome is reactivated in ovarian cells that produce ova.

55 Mary Lyon, a British geneticist, has demonstrated that the selection of which X chromosome to form the Barr body occurs randomly and independently in embryonic cells at the time of X inactivation. As a consequence, females consist of a mosaic of cells, some with an active paternal X, others with an active maternal X. After Barr body formation, all descendent cells have the same inactive X. If a female is heterozygous for a sex-linked trait, approximately half her cells will express one allele and the other half will express the other allele.

56 In humans, this mosaic pattern is evident in women who are heterozygous for an X-linked mutation that prevents the development of sweat glands. A heterozygous woman will have patches of normal skin and skin patches lacking sweat glands.

57 Similarly, the orange and black pattern on tortoiseshell cats is due to patches of cells expressing an orange allele while others have a non-orange allele. Only female cats will show this coloring. Fig

58 3. The pattern of inheritance (monohybrid, dihybrid, sex-linked, and genes linked on the same homologous chromosome) can often be predicted from data that gives the parent genotype/phenotype and/or the offspring phenotypes/genotypes.

59 CHAPTER 15 THE CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF INHERITANCE Section C: Errors and Exceptions in Chromosomal Inheritance 1. Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders 2. The phenotypic effects of some mammalian genes depend on whether they are inherited from the mother or the father (imprinting) 3. Extranuclear genes exhibit a non-mendelian pattern of inheritance

60 Introduction. Gene mutations are not the only kind of changes to the genome that can affect phenotype. Major chromosomal aberrations and their consequences produce exceptions to standard chromosome theory. In addition, two types of normal inheritance also deviate from the standard pattern. Let s see

61 1. Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders Nondisjunction occurs when problems with the meiotic spindle cause errors in daughter cells. This may occur if tetrad chromosomes do not separate properly during meiosis I. Alternatively, sister chromatids may fail to separate during meiosis II. Fig

62 As a consequence of non-disjunction, some gametes receive two of the same type of chromosome and other gametes receives no copy. They should get one from each pair. Fully 1/3 of human egg cells have the wrong number of chromosomes!! Offspring resulting from fertilization of a normal gamete with one after non-disjunction will have an abnormal chromosome number or aneuploidy. Trisomic cells have three copies of a particular chromosome type and have 2n + 1 total chromosomes. Monosomic cells have only one copy of a particular chromosome type and have 2n - 1 chromosomes. Aneuploidy typically leads to a distinct phenotype.

63 Organisms with more than two complete sets of chromosomes have undergone polypoidy. This may occur when a normal gamete fertilizes another gamete in which there has been nondisjunction of all its chromosomes. The resulting zygote would be triploid (3n). Alternatively, if a 2n zygote failed to divide after replicating its chromosomes, a tetraploid (4n) embryo would result from subsequent successful cycles of mitosis. Many seedless fruits come from plants with an odd number of sets of chromosomes (3n, 5n, etc.)

64 Polyploidy is relatively common among plants and much less common among animals. The spontaneous origin of polyploid individuals plays an important role in the evolution of plants. Both fishes and amphibians have polyploid species. Recently, researchers in Chile have identified a new rodent species which may be the product of polyploidy. Fig

65 Breakage of a chromosome can lead to four types of changes in chromosome structure. A deletion occurs when a chromosome fragment lacking a centromere is lost during cell division. This chromosome will be missing certain genes. A duplication occurs when a fragment becomes attached as an extra segment to a sister chromatid. Fig a & b

66 An inversion occurs when a chromosomal fragment reattaches to the original chromosome but in the reverse orientation. In translocation, a chromosomal fragment joins a nonhomologous chromosome. Some translocations are reciprocal, others are not. Fig c & d

67 Deletions and duplications are common in meiosis. Homologous chromatids may break and rejoin at incorrect places, such that one chromatid will lose more genes than it receives. A diploid embryo that is homozygous for a large deletion or made with a large deletion to its single X chromosome is usually missing many essential genes and this leads to a lethal outcome. Duplications and translocations are typically harmful. Reciprocal translocation or inversion can alter phenotype because a gene s expression is influenced by its location.

68 Several serious human disorders are due to alterations of chromosome number and structure. Although the frequency of aneuploid zygotes may be quite high in humans (up to 40% of gametes may be aneuploid), most of these alterations are so disastrous that the embryos are spontaneously aborted long before birth. These developmental problems results from an imbalance among gene products. Certain aneuploid conditions upset the balance less, leading to survival to birth and beyond. These individuals have a set of symptoms - a syndrome - characteristic of the type of aneuploidy.

69 One aneuploid condition, Down syndrome, is due to three copies of chromosome 21. It affects one in 700 children born in the U.S. Although chromosome 21 is the smallest human chromosome, it severely alters an individual s phenotype in specific ways. Fig

70 Most cases of Down syndrome result from nondisjunction during gamete production in the mother. The frequency of Down syndrome correlates with the age of the mother. This may be linked to some age-dependent abnormality in the spindle checkpoint during meiosis I, leading to nondisjunction. Trisomies of other chromosomes also increase in incidence with maternal age, but it is rare for infants with these autosomal trisomies to survive for long.

71 Non-disjunction of sex chromosomes produces a variety of aneuploid conditions in humans. Unlike autosomes, this aneuploidy upsets the genetic balance less severely. This may be because the Y chromosome contains relatively few genes. Also, extra copies of the X chromosome become inactivated as Barr bodies in somatic cells.

72 Klinefelter s syndrome, an XXY male, occurs once in every 2000 live births. These individuals have male sex organs, but are sterile. There may be feminine characteristics, but their intelligence is normal. Males with an extra Y chromosome (XYY) tend to somewhat taller than average. Trisomy X (XXX), which occurs once in every 2000 live births, produces healthy females. Monosomy X or Turner s syndrome (X0), which occurs once in every 5000 births, produces phenotypic, but immature females.

73 Structural alterations of chromosomes can also cause human disorders. Deletions, even in a heterozygous state, cause severe physical and mental problems. One syndrome, cri du chat, results from a specific deletion in chromosome 5. These individuals are mentally retarded, have a small head with unusual facial features, and a cry like the mewing of a distressed cat. This syndrome is fatal in infancy or early childhood.

74 c. Certain human genetic disorders can be attributed to the inheritance of single gene traits or specific chromosomal changes, such as nondisjunction. To demonstrate your understanding, make sure you can explain examples like: Sickle cell anemia Tay-Sachs disease Huntington s disease X-linked color blindness Trisomy 21/Down syndrome Klinefelter s syndrome

75 3. Extranuclear genes exhibit a non- Mendelian pattern of inheritance Not all of a eukaryote cell s genes are located in the nucleus. Extranuclear genes are found on small circles of DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts. These organelles reproduce themselves. Their cytoplasmic genes do not display Mendelian inheritance. They are not distributed to offspring during meiosis.

76 Karl Correns in 1909 first observed cytoplasmic genes in plants. He determined that the coloration of the offspring was determined only by the maternal parent. These coloration patterns are due to genes in the plastids which are inherited only via the ovum, not the pollen. Fig

77 Because a zygote inherits all its mitochondria only from the ovum, all mitochondrial genes in mammals demonstrate maternal inheritance. Several rare human disorders are produced by mutations to mitochondrial DNA. These primarily impact ATP supply by producing defects in the electron transport chain or ATP synthase. Tissues that require high energy supplies (for example, the nervous system and muscles) may suffer energy deprivation from these defects. Other mitochondrial mutations may contribute to diabetes, heart disease, and other diseases of aging.

78 c. Some traits result from nonnuclear inheritance. Evidence of student learning is a demonstrated understanding of each of the following: 1. Chloroplasts and mitochondria are randomly assorted to gametes and daughter cells; thus, traits determined by chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA do not follow simple Mendelian rules. 2. In animals, mitochondrial DNA is transmitted by the egg and not by sperm; as such, mitochondrialdetermined traits are maternally inherited.