What is an inheritance? To most people, it is money or

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1 11 1 The Work of Gregor Mendel What is an inheritance? To most people, it is money or property left to them by a relative who has passed away. That kind of inheritance is important, of course. There is another form of inheritance, however, that matters even more. This inheritance has been with you from the very first day you were alive your genes. Every living thing plant or animal, microbe or human being has a set of characteristics inherited from its parent or parents. Since the beginning of recorded history, people have wanted to understand how that inheritance is passed from generation to generation. More recently, however, scientists have begun to appreciate that heredity holds the key to understanding what makes each species unique. As a result, genetics, the scientific study of heredity, is now at the core of a revolution in understanding biology. Gregor Mendel s Peas The work of an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel, shown in Figure 11 1, was particularly important to understanding biological inheritance. Gregor Mendel was born in 1822 in what is now the Czech Republic. After becoming a priest, Mendel spent several years studying science and mathematics at the University of Vienna. He spent the next 14 years working in the monastery and teaching at the high school. In addition to his teaching duties, Mendel was in charge of the monastery garden. In this ordinary garden, he was to do the work that changed biology forever. Mendel carried out his work with ordinary garden peas. He knew that part of each flower produces pollen, which contains the plant s male reproductive cells, or sperm. Similarly, the female portion of the flower produces egg cells. During sexual reproduction, male and female reproductive cells join, a process known as fertilization. Fertilization produces a new cell, which develops into a tiny embryo encased within a seed. Pea flowers are normally self-pollinating, which means that sperm cells in pollen fertilize the egg cells in the same flower. The seeds that are produced by self-pollination inherit all of their characteristics from the single plant that bore them. In effect, they have a single parent. When Mendel took charge of the monastery garden, he had several stocks of pea plants. These peas were true-breeding, meaning that if they were allowed to self-pollinate, they would produce offspring identical to themselves. One stock of seeds would produce only tall plants, another only short ones. One line produced only green seeds, another only yellow seeds. These true-breeding plants were the basis of Mendel s experiments. SECTION RESOURCES Print: Teaching Resources, Section Review 11 1 Reading and Study Workbook A, Section 11 1 Adapted Reading and Study Workbook B, Section 11 1 Lesson Plans, Section 11 1 Key Concepts What is the principle of dominance? What happens during segregation? Vocabulary genetics fertilization true-breeding trait hybrid gene allele segregation gamete Reading Strategy: Finding Main Ideas As you read, find evidence to support the following statement: Mendel s ideas about genetics were the beginning of a new area of biology. Figure 11 1 Gregor Mendel s experiments with pea plants laid the foundations of the science of genetics. Technology: itext, Section 11 1 Animated Biological Concepts Videotape Library, 19 Transparencies Plus, Section 11 1 Section FOCUS Objectives Describe how Mendel studied inheritance in peas Summarize Mendel s conclusion about inheritance Explain the principle of dominance Describe what happens during segregation. Vocabulary Preview Help students become comfortable with the language of genetics by showing them how the Vocabulary words are related to one another. For example, a true-breeding individual is the opposite of a hybrid; an allele is one form of a gene, and genes specify particular traits. Construct a word web on the board to show these relationships. Reading Strategy Students should mention Mendel s research approach, as well as his results and interpretations, as support for the main idea. 2 INSTRUCT Gregor Mendel s Peas Observing Give students lilies, tulips, freesia, or other flowers with large stamens and pistils. Instruct them to cut off the stamens and pistils with small scissors and examine them under a dissecting microscope. If students carefully section the anther and the pistil, they may be able to observe pollen and egg cells on microscope slides with a compound microscope. Help them distinguish between pollen and sperm, and egg and ovule. Encourage students to draw labeled diagrams of their flowers. Introduction to Genetics 263

2 11 1 (continued) Classifying Explain that much of Mendel s success came from his choice of experimental organism. Pea plants are useful for genetic study because they have many contrasting characters, they reproduce sexually, their crosses can be controlled, they have short life cycles, they produce a large number of offspring, and they are easy to handle in a laboratory. Invite students to apply these same criteria to other organisms, such as humans, fruit flies, bacteria, oak trees, dogs, and mice. For each organism, students should explain why it would or would not be useful for genetic study. (Fruit flies, bacteria, and mice are most useful.) Genes and Dominance Use Visuals Figure 11 3 Review the results of Mendel s crosses. Make sure students can identify which traits are dominant and which are recessive. Ask: Why was Mendel surprised when the offspring had the character of only one of the parents? (In Mendel s time, people thought that characters of the parents blended to form the offspring.) Relate the terms genes and alleles to the results shown in the table. Make sure students are comfortable with the terminology. P Cross-Pollination Pollen Seed Shape Pea Flower Female part Figure 11 3 When Mendel crossed plants with contrasting characters for the same trait, the resulting offspring had only one of the characters. From these experiments, Mendel concluded that some alleles are dominant and others are recessive. Seed Color Male parts Mendel s Seven F 1 Crosses on Pea Plants Seed Coat Color Figure 11 2 To cross-pollinate pea plants, Mendel cut off the male parts of one flower and then dusted it with pollen from another flower. Applying Concepts How did this procedure prevent self-pollination? Mendel wanted to produce seeds by joining male and female reproductive cells from two different plants. To do this,he had to prevent self-pollination. He accomplished this by cutting away the pollen-bearing male parts as shown in Figure 11 2 and then dusting pollen from another plant onto the flower. This process,which is known as cross-pollination,produced seeds that had two different plants as parents. This made it possible for Mendel to cross-breed plants with different characteristics,and then to study the results. Pod Shape What is fertilization? Genes and Dominance Mendel studied seven different pea plant traits. A trait is a specific characteristic,such as seed color or plant height,that varies from one individual to another. Each of the seven traits Mendel studied had two contrasting characters,for example,green seed color and yellow seed color. Mendel crossed plants with each of the seven contrasting characters and studied their offspring. We call each original pair of plants the P (parental) generation. The offspring are called the F 1,or first filial, generation. Filius and filia are the Latin words for son and daughter. The offspring of crosses between parents with different traits are called hybrids. Pod Color Flower Position Plant Height Round Yellow Gray Smooth Green Axial Tall X X X X X X X Wrinkled Green White Constricted Yellow Terminal Short F 1 Round Yellow Gray Smooth Green Axial Tall SUPPORT FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS Vocabulary: Prior Knowledge Beginning Write the word trait on the board. Say trait and its definition aloud. Then, display photos of various kinds of organisms. For the first few photos, point to a trait and say the trait aloud in a simple sentence, such as This bear has the trait of brown fur. Then, ask students to point to other traits exhibited by the organism. As they point, say the trait aloud. Finally, work with students to compose concept circles (cluster diagrams) of traits shown in additional photos. After the students understand the concept, call their attention to the pea-plant traits in Figure Intermediate Extend the activity for beginning students by having intermediate students work individually to write traits of organisms shown in photos in this book, such as the mammals on pages Chapter 11

3 What were those F 1 hybrid plants like? Did the characters of the parent plants blend in the offspring? Not at all. To Mendel s surprise, all of the offspring had the character of only one of the parents, as shown in Figure In each cross, the character of the other parent seemed to have disappeared. From this set of experiments, Mendel drew two conclusions. Mendel s first conclusion was that biological inheritance is determined by factors that are passed from one generation to the next. Today, scientists call the chemical factors that determine traits genes. Each of the traits Mendel studied was controlled by one gene that occurred in two contrasting forms. These contrasting forms produced the different characters of each trait. For example, the gene for plant height occurs in one form that produces tall plants and in another form that produces short plants. The different forms of a gene are called alleles (uh-leelz). Mendel s second conclusion is called the principle of dominance. The principle of dominance states that some alleles are dominant and others are recessive. An organism with a dominant allele for a particular form of a trait will always exhibit that form of the trait. An organism with a recessive allele for a particular form of a trait will exhibit that form only when the dominant allele for the trait is not present. In Mendel s experiments, the allele for tall plants was dominant and the allele for short plants was recessive. The allele for yellow seeds was dominant, while the allele for green seeds was recessive. Segregation Mendel wanted the answer to another question: Had the recessive alleles disappeared, or were they still present in the F 1 plants? To answer this question, he allowed all seven kinds of F 1 hybrid plants to produce an F 2 (second filial) generation by selfpollination. In effect, he crossed the F 1 generation with itself to produce the F 2 offspring, as shown in Figure For: Articles on genetics Visit: PHSchool.com Web Code: cbe-4111 P Generation F 1 Generation F 2 Generation X X Tall Short Tall Tall Tall Tall Tall HISTORY OF SCIENCE Methods of Mendel s success Mendel was the first scientist of his time to obtain successful results from inheritance studies because of the methods he employed. In fact, his methods continue to be used today. Mendel studied only one trait at a time. He also took the time to verify that the parent plants were true-breeding for the Figure 11 4 When Mendel allowed the F 1 plants to reproduce by self-pollination, the traits controlled by recessive alleles reappeared in about one fourth of the F 2 plants in each cross. Calculating What proportion of the F 2 plants had a trait controlled by a dominant allele? Short particular trait he was studying. Mendel used a quantitative approach to analyze his results. He counted the number of offspring from every cross and used statistical analysis to interpret his numbers. Most important, Mendel formulated hypotheses to explain his results, and he developed experimental tests to confirm them. Science News provides students with the most current information on genetics. Demonstration Display the parental corn cobs and the F 1 corn cobs produced in a cross between purple (PP) corn and yellow (pp) corn, as well as those produced in a cross between starchy (SS) corn and sweet (ss) corn. Have students identify the traits associated with each allele for each cross and which allele is dominant and which is recessive. Segregation Use Visuals Figure 11 4 Walk students through the crosses that Mendel set up as they are illustrated in the figure. Ask: Did Mendel cross-pollinate F 1 plants to get F 2 plants? (No, he allowed them to self-pollinate.) Was the recessive allele for shortness lost in the F 1 generation? (No, it was masked by the dominant allele for tallness.) Are the F 1 plants truebreeding? (No, they did not produce offspring identical to themselves.) Have student volunteers identify the gametes that each plant would produce in the P generation and in the F 1 generation. Address Misconceptions Some students might think it is impossible for two tall pea plants to produce short pea plants. For these students, review the cross as shown in Figure Make sure they see that the tall pea plants came from a tall plant crossed to a short plant. Ask: Why aren t any offspring short? (The allele for tallness is dominant and masks the allele for shortness.) Why do these plants have an allele for shortness? (One of their parents was short and could contribute only alleles for shortness to its offspring.) Answers to... The process during sexual reproduction when male and female cells join Figure 11 2 The flower no longer had its own source of pollen. Figure 11 4 Three fourths Introduction to Genetics 265

4 11 1 (continued) Calculating Instruct students to plant F 2 corn seeds produced in a cross between two plants heterozygous for green and white color (Gg). When the seeds sprout, students should get a mixture of green plants and white plants. Ask: Which allele is dominant? (Green) Which is recessive? (White) How do you know? (More green plants) Have students calculate the ratio of green plants to white plants. Discuss how their results compare with Mendel s. (The class should have a ratio close to 3 green : 1 white.) 3 ASSESS Evaluate Understanding Assign students a trait in pea plants. Have them set up a cross as Mendel did to show the F 1 and F 2 offspring. Students should identify the dominant and recessive alleles. Reteach Help students devise a flowchart that outlines Mendel s method for his breeding experiments in pea plants. Encourage students to include as many Vocabulary words as possible. Students diagrams should be similar to Figures 11 3 and Segregation of alleles ensures that each gamete carries only a single copy of each gene. T TT Tt t Tt T Tt Tt t tt F 1 Segregation Gametes F 2 Figure 11 5 During gamete formation, alleles segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only a single copy of each gene. Each F 1 plant produces two types of gametes those with the allele for tallness and those with the allele for shortness. The alleles are paired up again when gametes fuse during fertilization. The TT and Tt allele combinations produce tall pea plants; tt is the only allele combination that produces a short pea plant Section Assessment 1. Key Concept What are dominant and recessive alleles? 2. Key Concept What is segregation? What happens to alleles during segregation? 3. What did Mendel conclude determines biological inheritance? 4. Describe how Mendel crosspollinated pea plants. The F 1 Cross The results of the F 1 cross were remarkable. When Mendel compared the F 2 plants, he discovered that the traits controlled by the recessive alleles had reappeared! Roughly one fourth of the F 2 plants showed the trait controlled by the recessive allele. Why did the recessive alleles seem to disappear in the F 1 generation and then reappear in the F 2 generation? To answer this question, let s take a closer look at one of Mendel s crosses. Explaining the F 1 Cross To begin with, Mendel assumed that a dominant allele had masked the corresponding recessive allele in the F 1 generation. However, the trait controlled by the recessive allele showed up in some of the F 2 plants. This reappearance indicated that at some point the allele for shortness had been separated from the allele for tallness. How did this separation, or segregation, of alleles occur? Mendel suggested that the alleles for tallness and shortness in the F 1 plants segregated from each other during the formation of the sex cells, or gametes (GAM-eetz). Did that suggestion make sense? Let s assume, as perhaps Mendel did, that the F 1 plants inherited an allele for tallness from the tall parent and an allele for shortness from the short parent. Because the allele for tallness is dominant, all the F 1 plants are tall. When each F 1 plant flowers and produces gametes, the two alleles segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only a single copy of each gene. Therefore, each F 1 plant produces two types of gametes those with the allele for tallness and those with the allele for shortness. Look at Figure 11 5 to see how alleles separated during gamete formation and then paired up again in the F 2 generation. A capital letter T represents a dominant allele. A lowercase letter t represents a recessive allele. The result of this process is an F 2 generation with new combinations of alleles. 5. Why did only about one fourth of Mendel s F 2 plants exhibit the recessive trait? 6. Critical Thinking Applying Concepts Why were truebreeding pea plants important for Mendel s experiments? Using Diagrams Use a diagram to explain Mendel s principles of dominance and segregation. Your diagram should show how the alleles segregate during gamete formation. If your class subscribes to the itext, use it to review the Key Concepts in Section Chapter Section Assessment 1. Dominant: form of an allele whose trait always shows up if it is present; recessive: form of an allele whose trait shows up only when the dominant allele is not present 2. Separation of paired alleles; the alleles are separated during the formation of gametes, with the result that each gamete carries only a single allele from the original pair. 3. Factors that are passed from one generation to the next 4. Mendel cut away the male parts of one flower, then dusted it with pollen from another flower. 5. Only one-fourth of the possible gamete combinations did not have a dominant allele. 6. True-breeding pea plants have two identical alleles for a gene, so in a genetic cross each parent contributed only one form of a gene, making inheritance patterns more detectable.

5 11 2 Probability and Punnett Squares Whenever Mendel performed a cross with pea plants, he carefully categorized and counted the many offspring. Every time Mendel repeated a particular cross, he obtained similar results. For example, whenever Mendel crossed two plants that were hybrid for stem height (Tt), about three fourths of the resulting plants were tall and about one fourth were short. Mendel realized that the principles of probability could be used to explain the results of genetic crosses. Genetics and Probability The likelihood that a particular event will occur is called probability. As an example of probability, consider an ordinary event like the coin flip shown in Figure There are two possible outcomes: The coin may land heads up or tails up. The chances, or probabilities, of either outcome are equal. Therefore, the probability that a single coin flip will come up heads is 1 chance in 2. This is 1/2, or 50 percent. If you flip a coin three times in a row, what is the probability that it will land heads up every time? Because each coin flip is an independent event, the probability of each coin s landing heads up is 1/2. Therefore, the probability of flipping three heads in a row is: =. As you can see, you have 1 chance in 8 of flipping heads three times in a row. That the individual probabilities are multiplied together illustrates an important point past outcomes do not affect future ones. How is coin flipping relevant to genetics? The way in which alleles segregate is completely random, like a coin flip. The principles of probability can be used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses. What is the probability that a tossed coin will come up tails twice in a row? Figure 11 6 The mathematical concept of probability allows you to calculate the likelihood that a particular event will occur. Predicting What is the probability that the coin will land heads up? SECTION RESOURCES Print: Teaching Resources, Section Review 11 2, Enrichment Reading and Study Workbook A, Section 11 2 Adapted Reading and Study Workbook B, Section 11 2 Lesson Plans, Section 11 2 Key Concepts How do geneticists use the principles of probability? How do geneticists use Punnett squares? Vocabulary probability Punnett square homozygous heterozygous phenotype genotype Reading Strategy: Building Vocabulary Before you read, preview the list of new vocabulary words. Predict the relationship between phenotype and genotype. As you read, check to see if your predictions were correct. Technology: itext, Section 11 2 Transparencies Plus, Section 11 2 Section FOCUS Objectives Explain how geneticists use the principles of probability Describe how geneticists use Punnett squares. Vocabulary Preview Ask: What suffix do the words homozygous and heterozygous share? (-zygous) Tell students that -zygous means yoked or joined, and the prefix homo- means same. Also explain that a homozygous organism has two identical alleles for a certain gene. Ask: If hetero- means other, what does heterozygous describe? (An organism with two different alleles for a gene) Reading Strategy Encourage students to write down the main headings of the section before they begin reading. Tell them to leave room below each heading to record important ideas as they read. 2 INSTRUCT Genetics and Probability Make Connections Mathematics Give pairs of students a paper bag that has 4 items that are identical except for color. The items should be the same shape and size. Ask: What is the probability of picking a red item? (1/4 or 25 percent) Of picking a red item two times in a row? (1/4 1/4 1/16) Then, instruct students to pick an item from the bag 20 times, then 50 times. Ask: Did your results equal your calculated probabilities? (The more times students pick from the bag, the closer their actual results will be to the predicted probability.) Answers to... 1/4 or 25 percent Figure /2 or 50 percent Introduction to Genetics 267

6 11 2 (continued) Punnett Squares How are dimples inherited? Father s genotype is dd (2 even digits) 4638 Mother s genotype is Dd (1 even digit and 1 odd digit) Objective Students will be able to conclude how dimples are inherited. Skills Focus Applying Concepts, Drawing Conclusions Materials copy of page from telephone book, calculator Time 15 minutes Advance Prep Photocopy several pages from a telephone book. Strategies Demonstrate the use of a 4-digit number to represent the genotypes of the parents in a genetic cross. Show students how to set up and use Punnett squares, if necessary. Expected Outcomes Students will determine the probability of having a child with dimples based on the genotypes of the parents. Calculated probabilities will vary depending on the genotypes of the parents. Analyze and Conclude 1. Class averages will vary but will usually be close to 75 percent dimples, the result of a cross between two heterozygotes percent because the allele for dimples (D) is a dominant allele. Probability and Segregation Address Misconceptions Beginning genetics students often misinterpret probable genotypic and phenotypic ratios as actual numbers of offspring. Provide opportunities to calculate actual ratios using F 2 corn cobs or experimental data. Students should set up Punnett squares and compare the predicted ratios with the actual ratios. Tt Materials copy of page from telephone book, calculator Procedure 1. Write the last 4 digits of any telephone number. These 4 random digits represent the alleles of a gene that determines whether a person will have dimples. Odd digits represent the allele for the dominant trait of dimples. Even digits stand for the allele for the recessive trait of no dimples. 2. Use the first 2 digits to represent a certain father s genotype. Use the symbols D and d to write his genotype, as shown in the example. 3. Use the last 2 digits the same way to find the mother s genotype. Write her genotype. T Tt T TT 25% Tt 25% t Tt 25% tt 25% Figure 11 7 The principles of probability can be used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses. This Punnett square shows the probability of each possible outcome of a cross between hybrid tall (Tt) pea plants. Inclusion/Special Needs Give students additional opportunities to practice calculating probabilities by making available a probabilities kit. In this kit, provide coins and a grab bag with colored beads, colored sticks, or any other manipulative that differs only in color. You might have these students pair up with advanced students to predict probabilities and observe the outcomes. t 4. Use Figure 11 7 as an example to construct a Punnett square for the cross of these parents. Then, using the Punnett square, determine the probability that their child will have dimples. 5. Determine the class average of the percent of children with dimples. Analyze and Conclude 1. Applying Concepts How does the class average compare with the result of a cross of two heterozygous parents? 2. Drawing Conclusions What percentage of the children will be expected to have dimples if one parent is homozygous for dimples (DD) and the other is heterozygous (Dd)? Punnett Squares The gene combinations that might result from a genetic cross can be determined by drawing a diagram known as a Punnett square. The Punnett square in Figure 11 7 shows one of Mendel s segregation experiments. The types of gametes produced by each F 1 parent are shown along the top and left sides of the square. The possible gene combinations for the F 2 offspring appear in the four boxes that make up the square. The letters in the Punnett square represent alleles. In this example, T represents the dominant allele for tallness and t represents the recessive allele for shortness. Punnett squares can be used to predict and compare the genetic variations that will result from a cross. Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular trait TT or tt in this example are said to be homozygous (hoh-moh-zy-gus). Organisms that have two different alleles for the same trait are heterozygous (het-ur-oh-zy-gus). Homozygous organisms are truebreeding for a particular trait. Heterozygous organisms are hybrid for a particular trait. All of the tall plants have the same phenotype, or physical characteristics. They do not, however, have the same genotype, or genetic makeup. The genotype of one third of the tall plants is TT, while the genotype of two thirds of the tall plants is Tt. The plants in Figure 11 8 have the same phenotype but different genotypes. Less Proficient Readers Challenge students to write an instructional manual for using Punnett squares. Students should include a labeled diagram of a Punnett square in their manual, as well as step-by-step directions on how to use one and why Punnett squares are useful tools for geneticists. 268 Chapter 11

7 Probability and Segregation Look again at Figure One fourth (1/4) of the F 2 plants have two alleles for tallness (TT); 2/4, or 1/2, of the F 2 plants have one allele for tallness and one allele for shortness (Tt). Because the allele for tallness is dominant over the allele for shortness, 3/4 of the F 2 plants should be tall. Overall, there are 3 tall plants for every 1 short plant in the F 2 generation. Thus, the ratio of tall plants to short plants is 3 : 1. This assumes, of course, that Mendel s model of segregation is correct. Did the data from Mendel s experiments fit his model? Yes. The predicted ratio 3 dominant to 1 recessive showed up consistently, indicating that Mendel s assumptions about segregation had been correct. For each of his seven crosses, about 3/4 of the plants showed the trait controlled by the dominant allele. About 1/4 showed the trait controlled by the recessive allele. Segregation did indeed occur according to Mendel s model. Probabilities Predict Averages Probabilities predict the average outcome of a large number of events. However, probability cannot predict the precise outcome of an individual event. If you flip a coin twice, you are likely to get one head and one tail. However, you might also get two heads or two tails. To be more likely to get the expected 50 : 50 ratio, you would have to flip the coin many times. The same is true of genetics. The larger the number of offspring, the closer the resulting numbers will get to expected values. If an F 1 generation contains just three or four offspring, it may not match Mendelian predicted ratios. When an F 1 generation contains hundreds or thousands of individuals, however, the ratios usually come very close to matching expectations. TT Homozygous Tt Heterozygous Figure 11 8 Although these plants have different genotypes (TT and Tt), they have the same phenotype (tall). Predicting If you crossed these two plants, would their offspring be tall or short? Probabilities Predict Averages Designing Experiments Give students a coin or a bag with 2 or 3 beads that differ in color. Ask them to design an experiment to show that probabilities cannot predict the outcome of an individual event. 3 ASSESS Evaluate Understanding Assign students different traits in peas. Then, instruct them to set up a Punnett square to show the cross between two heterozygous pea plants for their trait. Students should give both the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of the offspring. Reteach Give student pairs a list of genetic crosses between parents of various genotypes. Instruct pairs to use Punnett squares to show the possible outcomes of the crosses Section Assessment 1. Key Concept How are the principles of probability used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses? 2. Key Concept How are Punnett squares used? 3. What is probability? 4. Define the terms genotype and phenotype. 5. Critical Thinking Problem Solving An F 1 plant that is homozygous for shortness is crossed with a heterozygous F 1 plant. What is the probability that a seed from the cross will produce a tall plant? Use a Punnett square to explain your answer and to compare the probable genetic variations in the F 2 plants. Drawing Punnett Squares Imagine that you came upon a tall pea plant similar to those Mendel used in his experiments. How could you determine the plant s genotype with respect to height? Draw two Punnett squares to show your answer. The genotype of the tall pea plant is determined by allowing the plant to self-pollinate. If the plant is heterozygous, there is a 25 percent chance that an offspring will be short. If the plant is homozygous, then all offspring will be tall. Students should draw Punnett squares to show both possibilities. If your class subscribes to the itext, use it to review the Key Concepts in Section Section Assessment 1. The way in which the alleles segregate is random, and probability allows the calculation of the likelihood that a particular allele combination will occur in offspring. 2. To predict and compare the genetic variations that will result from a cross 3. The likelihood that a particular event will occur 4. Genotype: actual alleles present for a trait, or genetic makeup; phenotype: visible expression of the alleles, or physical characteristics percent; Punnett square: t t T Tt Tt t tt tt Answer to... Figure 11 8 All of the offspring would be tall. Introduction to Genetics 269

8 Section Exploring Mendelian Genetics 1 FOCUS Objectives Explain the principle of independent assortment Describe the inheritance patterns that exist aside from simple dominance Explain how Mendel s principles apply to all organisms. Vocabulary Preview Explain that the prefix poly- means more than one. Ask: What do you think a polygenic trait is? (A trait controlled by more than one gene) Reading Strategy Before students read the section, suggest that they read the captions and study the art and diagrams in each figure. 2 INSTRUCT Independent Assortment Applying Concepts Give students F 1 corn cobs produced in a dihybrid cross between homozygous purple, starchy (PPSS) and yellow, sweet parents (ppss). Ask: Which traits are controlled by dominant alleles? (Purple and starchy) Then, have students construct a Punnett square to show all the possible gametes and offspring from the cross. (Punnett squares should look similar to the one in Figure Possible gametes for the ppss parent are ps. Those for the PPSS parent are PS. All offspring will be heterozygous, PpSs.) Key Concepts What is the principle of independent assortment? What inheritance patterns exist aside from simple dominance? Vocabulary independent assortment incomplete dominance codominance multiple alleles polygenic traits Reading Strategy: Finding Main Ideas Before you read, draw a line down the center of a sheet of paper. On the left side, write down the main topics of the section. On the right side, note supporting details and examples. SECTION RESOURCES After showing that alleles segregate during the formation of gametes, Mendel wondered if they did so independently. In other words, does the segregation of one pair of alleles affect the segregation of another pair of alleles? For example, does the gene that determines whether a seed is round or wrinkled in shape have anything to do with the gene for seed color? Must a round seed also be yellow? Independent Assortment To answer these questions, Mendel performed an experiment to follow two different genes as they passed from one generation to the next. Mendel s experiment is known as a two-factor cross. The Two-Factor Cross: F 1 First, Mendel crossed truebreeding plants that produced only round yellow peas (genotype RRYY) with plants that produced wrinkled green peas (genotype rryy). All of the F 1 offspring produced round yellow peas. This shows that the alleles for yellow and round peas are dominant over the alleles for green and wrinkled peas. A Punnett square for this cross, shown in Figure 11 9, shows that the genotype of each of these F 1 plants is. This cross does not indicate whether genes assort, or segregate, independently. However, it provides the hybrid plants needed for the next cross the cross of F 1 plants to produce the F 2 generation. Figure 11 9 Mendel crossed plants that were homozygous dominant for round yellow peas with plants that were homozygous recessive for wrinkled green peas. All of the F 1 offspring were heterozygous dominant for round yellow peas. Interpreting Graphics How is the genotype of the offspring different from that of the homozygous dominant parent? RRYY RY RY RY RY ry ry ry ry rryy Print: Laboratory Manual A, Chapter 11 Lab Laboratory Manual B, Chapter 11 Lab Teaching Resources, Section Review 11 3 Reading and Study Workbook A, Section 11 3 Adapted Reading and Study Workbook B, Section 11 3 Lesson Plans, Section 11 3 Technology: itext, Section 11 3 Transparencies Plus, Section 11 3 Lab Simulations CD-ROM, Mendelian Inheritance 270 Chapter 11

9 The Two-Factor Cross: F 2 Mendel knew that the F 1 plants had genotypes of. In other words, the F 1 plants were all heterozygous for both the seed shape and seed color genes. How would the alleles segregate when the F 1 plants were crossed to each other to produce an F 2 generation? Remember that each plant in the F 1 generation was formed by the fusion of a gamete carrying the dominant RY alleles with another gamete carrying the recessive ry alleles. Did this mean that the two dominant alleles would always stay together? Or would they segregate independently, so that any combination of alleles was possible? In Mendel s experiment, the F 2 plants produced 556 seeds. Mendel compared the variation in the seeds. He observed that 315 seeds were round and yellow and another 32 were wrinkled and green, the two parental phenotypes. However, 209 of the seeds had combinations of phenotypes and therefore combinations of alleles not found in either parent. This clearly meant that the alleles for seed shape segregated independently of those for seed color a principle known as independent assortment. Put another way, genes that segregate independently such as the genes for seed shape and seed color in pea plants do not influence each other s inheritance. Mendel s experimental results were very close to the 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio that the Punnett square shown in Figure predicts. Mendel had discovered the principle of independent assortment. The principle of independent assortment states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes. Independent assortment helps account for the many genetic variations observed in plants, animals, and other organisms. Producing True-Breeding Seeds Suppose you work for a company that specializes in ornamental flowers. One spring, you find an ornamental plant with beautiful lavender flowers. Knowing that these plants are self-pollinating, you harvest seeds from it. You plant the seeds the following season. Of the 106 test plants, 31 have white flowers. Is there a way to develop seeds that produce only lavender flowers? Defining the Problem Describe the problem that must be solved to make the lavender-flowered plants a commercial success. Organizing Information The first lavender flower produced offspring with both lavender and white flowers when allowed to self-pollinate. Use your knowledge of Mendelian genetics, including Punnett RY Ry ry ry RRYY RRYy RrYY RRYy RRyy Rryy RY Ry ry ry RrYY rryy rryy F 2 Generation Rryy rryy rryy Figure When Mendel crossed plants that were heterozygous dominant for round yellow peas, he found that the alleles segregated independently to produce the F 2 generation. squares, to draw conclusions about the nature of the allele for these lavender flowers. Creating a Solution Write a description of how you would produce seeds guaranteed to produce 100 percent lavender plants. A single plant can produce as many as 1000 seeds. Presenting Your Plan Prepare a step-by-step outline of your plan, including Punnett squares when appropriate. Present the procedure to your class. Use Visuals Figure Have students give the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the offspring for the cross shown in the figure. Ask: What phenotypes would you observe if the alleles did not segregate independently? (Round, yellow seeds and wrinkled, green seeds) The 106 test plants were the result of the self-fertilization, or selfing, of the original lavender-flowering plant. Because the male and female gametes came from the same plant, they have the same genotype. You can compare this to the F 1 crosses set up by Mendel. Defining the Problem Develop true-breeding, or homozygous, lavender-flowering plants. Organizing Information The allele for lavender flowers is dominant. The lavender-flowering plant is heterozygous. Students should show Punnett squares for selfing a homozygous plant (would expect only one flower color) and a heterozygous plant (would expect two colors in a 3:1 ratio). Creating a Solution The best plans will suggest collecting seeds from many plants with lavender flowers and sowing them in separate plots, one plot for seeds produced by each plant. Some plants should produce offspring with only lavender flowers. Sow seeds from these plants to be absolutely sure the plants are true-breeding. Presenting Your Plan The best plans will include a step-bystep outline of the procedure to collect lavender-flowering plants that is genetically sound. The plan should include Punnett squares to support the genetic predictions of the crosses. Inclusion/Special Needs Have students develop a table in which they list the five different patterns of gene expression, along with descriptions and examples of each. Encourage students to include Punnett squares that illustrate each pattern of inheritance. English Language Learners Make sure students can differentiate between Mendel s principles of segregation and independent assortment. Use diagrams like the one in Figure 11 5 to illustrate how alleles from different traits segregate independently. Advanced Learners Enable students to set up genetic crosses with fruit flies. Have enough varieties available for students to observe independent assortment and different inheritance patterns. Tell them how to use test crosses. Invite them to share their findings with the class. Answer to... Figure 11 9 The offspring are heterozygous. Introduction to Genetics 271

10 11 3 (continued) A Summary of Mendel s Principles NSTA Download a worksheet on Mendelian genetics for students to complete, and find additional teacher support from NSTA SciLinks. Applying Concepts Challenge students to work in pairs to illustrate the summarized list of Mendel s principles. For reference, they can study figures in this chapter and in Chapter 12. Beyond Dominant and Recessive Alleles Use Visuals Figure Ask: What phenotypic ratio would you expect to see if two heterozygous plants with pink flowers were crossed? (1 red: 2 pink: 1 white) Explain that for alleles that show incomplete dominance, the alleles work together to produce a dosage effect. For example, if a plant has one allele for red pigment and one allele for no pigment (which produces white flowers), then only half as much red pigment is produced, making the flowers pink. Using Models Challenge students to devise a model that shows the difference between incomplete dominance and codominance. One way to do this is to use paper and crayons. In incomplete dominance, two colors are blended together to form a new color. In codominance, the two individual colors are still distinctly visible; they are not blended together. Figure Some alleles are neither dominant nor recessive. In four o clock plants, for example, the alleles for red and white flowers show incomplete dominance. Heterozygous (RW) plants have pink flowers a mix of red and white coloring. WW For: Links on Mendelian genetics Visit: Web Code: cbn-4113 R NSTA RR R W RW RW W RW RW HISTORY OF SCIENCE Testing to identify F 1 genotypes Mendel was very thorough in his methodology, so it really comes as no surprise that he devised a method to test his hypotheses in various ways. One method he used, which is used frequently by geneticists today, has come to be known as the testcross. A testcross is used to identify the genotype of F 1 hybrids. For this cross, F 1 hybrids are crossed back to the parent with the trait controlled by the recessive allele. When Mendel used A Summary of Mendel s Principles Mendel s principles form the basis of the modern science of genetics. These principles can be summarized as follows: The inheritance of biological characteristics is determined by individual units known as genes. Genes are passed from parents to their offspring. In cases in which two or more forms (alleles) of the gene for a single trait exist, some forms of the gene may be dominant and others may be recessive. In most sexually reproducing organisms, each adult has two copies of each gene one from each parent. These genes are segregated from each other when gametes are formed. The alleles for different genes usually segregate independently of one another. Beyond Dominant and Recessive Alleles Despite the importance of Mendel s work, there are important exceptions to most of his principles. For example, not all genes show simple patterns of dominant and recessive alleles. In most organisms, genetics is more complicated, because the majority of genes have more than two alleles. In addition, many important traits are controlled by more than one gene. Some alleles are neither dominant nor recessive, and many traits are controlled by multiple alleles or multiple genes. Incomplete Dominance A cross between two four o clock (Mirabilis) plants shows one of these complications. The F 1 generation produced by a cross between red-flowered (RR) and whiteflowered (WW) plants consists of pink-colored flowers (RW), as shown in Figure Which allele is dominant in this case? Neither one. Cases in which one allele is not completely dominant over another are called incomplete dominance. In incomplete dominance, the heterozygous phenotype is somewhere in between the two homozygous phenotypes. Codominance A similar situation is codominance, in which both alleles contribute to the phenotype. For example, in certain varieties of chicken, the allele for black feathers is codominant with the allele for white feathers. Heterozygous chickens have a color described as erminette, speckled with black and white feathers. Unlike the blending of red and white colors in heterozygous four o clocks, black and white colors appear separately. Many human genes show codominance, too, including one for a protein that controls cholesterol levels in the blood. People with the heterozygous form of the gene produce two different forms of the protein, each with a different effect on cholesterol levels. a testcross for his F 1 offspring, he expected to observe approximately equal numbers of offspring with the traits controlled by the dominant and recessive alleles. That is what he observed. Today, a testcross is used to determine whether an individual with the phenotype controlled by the dominant allele is heterozygous or homozygous. If the individual is homozygous, none of the offspring will have the phenotype controlled by the recessive allele. 272 Chapter 11

11 FIGURE MULTIPLE ALLELES Coat color in rabbits is determined by a single gene that has at least four different alleles. Different combinations of alleles result in the four colors you see here. Interpreting Graphics What allele combinations can a chinchilla rabbit have? Full color: CC, Cc ch, Cc h, or Cc Himalayan: c h c or c h c h Chinchilla: c ch c h, c ch c ch, or c ch c Albino: cc Key C = full color; dominant to all other alleles c ch c h c = chinchilla; partial defect in pigmentation; dominant to c h and c alleles = Himalayan; color in certain parts of body; dominant to c allele = albino; no color; recessive to all other alleles Address Misconceptions Students might try to apply the ideas of simple dominance to other types of gene expression. Give students many different examples of incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, and polygenic traits. Collect pictures for students to compare the various phenotypes. Use Visuals Figure Explain that coat color in rabbits does show a pattern of simple dominance among four alleles. Have students study the genotypes of the rabbits in the figure. Challenge them to arrange the alleles for coat color in order from the most dominant to the least dominant. (C c ch c h c) Then, have students make up genetic crosses for coat color in rabbits and exchange them with partners. Partners should solve the problems using Punnett squares. Multiple Alleles Many genes have more than two alleles and are therefore said to have multiple alleles. This does not mean that an individual can have more than two alleles. It only means that more than two possible alleles exist in a population. One of the best-known examples is coat color in rabbits. A rabbit s coat color is determined by a single gene that has at least four different alleles. The four known alleles display a pattern of simple dominance that can produce four possible coat colors, as shown in Figure Many other genes have multiple alleles, including the human genes for blood type. Polygenic Traits Many traits are produced by the interaction of several genes. Traits controlled by two or more genes are said to be polygenic traits, which means having many genes. For example, at least three genes are involved in making the reddish-brown pigment in the eyes of fruit flies. Different combinations of alleles for these genes produce very different eye colors. Polygenic traits often show a wide range of phenotypes. For example, the wide range of skin color in humans comes about partly because more than four different genes probably control this trait. What are multiple alleles? TEACHER TO TEACHER When I teach introductory genetics, I find that students often lose interest studying only the inheritance of traits in pea plants. To keep them more interested, I like to relate inheritance to their world and insert many examples of human traits. Some human traits that show simple dominance include cystic fibrosis (recessive), freckles (dominant), and widow s peak (dominant). Blood type is controlled by 3 alleles in which NSTA For: Links on Punnett squares Visit: Web Code: cbn-4112 A (I A ) and B (I B ) are codominant, and both are dominant over O (ii). I devise genetics problems using these and other human traits for students to practice setting up Punnett squares and identifying genotypes and phenotypes. James Boal Biology Teacher Natrona County High School Casper, WY NSTA Download a worksheet on Punnett squares for students to complete, and find additional teacher support from NSTA SciLinks. Applying Mendel s Principles Demonstration Set up crosses between wild-type fruit flies and fruit flies with vestigial wings. Allow students to observe the parents of the cross and the F 1 offspring. Ask: Which trait is controlled by a dominant allele? (Normal wings) Then, have student volunteers diagram a Punnett square on the board to predict the phenotypic ratio of the F 2 offspring. Count all the F 2 progeny from the cross and have students compare the actual phenotypic ratio with the predicted ratio. Answers to... Genes that have more than two alleles Figure c ch c h, c ch c ch, or c ch c Introduction to Genetics 273

12 11 3 (continued) Genetics and the Environment Designing Experiments Give student groups two cuttings from the coleus plant that you started in potting soil about two weeks before. (The cuttings are genetically identical.) Challenge students to use these cuttings to design an experiment that shows how the environment affects phenotype. Students might grow one of the plants with less daylight, at warmer temperatures, or with added fertilizer. 3 ASSESS Evaluate Understanding Play a game in which you ask student teams to solve various problems in genetics from identifying the pattern of inheritance, such as simple dominance, incomplete dominance, or multiple alleles, to predicting the outcome of dihybrid crosses. Reteach Students can make flashcards for each of the Vocabulary words. Student pairs can quiz each other on the meanings of the words. Students problems should follow the rules of genetics and include correct and complete answers. Have pairs of students exchange and try to solve each other s problems. Figure The common fruit fly is a popular organism for genetic research. Inferring Why are fruit flies easier to use for genetic research than large animals, such as dogs? 11 3 Section Assessment 1. Key Concept Explain what independent assortment means. 2. Key Concept Describe two inheritance patterns besides simple dominance. 3. What is the difference between incomplete dominance and codominance? 4. Why are fruit flies an ideal organism for genetic research? Applying Mendel s Principles Mendel s principles don t apply only to plants. At the beginning of the 1900s, the American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan decided to look for a model organism to advance the study of genetics. He wanted an animal that was small, easy to keep in the laboratory, and able to produce large numbers of offspring in a short period of time. He decided to work on a tiny insect that kept showing up, uninvited, in his laboratory. The insect was the common fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, shown in Figure Morgan grew the flies in small milk bottles stoppered with cotton gauze. Drosophila was an ideal organism for genetics because it could produce plenty of offspring, and it did so quickly. A single pair of flies could produce as many as 100 offspring. Before long, Morgan and other biologists had tested every one of Mendel s principles and learned that they applied not just to pea plants but to other organisms as well. Mendel s principles also apply to humans. The basic principles of Mendelian genetics can be used to study the inheritance of human traits and to calculate the probability of certain traits appearing in the next generation. You will learn more about human genetics in Chapter 14. Genetics and the Environment The characteristics of any organism, whether bacterium, fruit fly, or human being, are not determined solely by the genes it inherits. Rather, characteristics are determined by interaction between genes and the environment. For example, genes may affect a sunflower plant s height and the color of its flowers. However, these same characteristics are also influenced by climate, soil conditions, and the availability of water. Genes provide a plan for development, but how that plan unfolds also depends on the environment. 5. Critical Thinking Comparing and Contrasting A geneticist studying coat color in animals crosses a male rabbit having the genotype CC with a female having genotype Cc ch. The geneticist then crosses a cc ch male with a Cc c female. In which of the two crosses are the offspring more likely to show greater genetic variation? Use Punnett squares to explain your answer. Problem Solving Construct a genetics problem to be given as an assignment to a classmate. The problem must test incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, or polygenic traits. Your problem must have an answer key that includes all of your work. If your class subscribes to the itext, use it to review the Key Concepts in Section Answer to... Figure They are small, easy to keep in the laboratory, and produce large numbers of offspring in a short time. 274 Chapter Section Assessment 1. During gamete formation, pairs of alleles for different traits segregate, or separate, independently of each other. 2. Answers include descriptions for any two: incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, or polygenic traits. 3. In incomplete dominance, two alleles combine their effects to produce a single in-between phenotype, such as pink flowers from red and white parents. In codominance, each allele is expressed separately, as when erminette chickens have both black and white feathers. 4. They are small, easy to keep in the laboratory, and produce large numbers of offspring in a short period of time. 5. The offspring in the second cross will show greater variation because 100 percent of the offspring from the first cross (CC x Cc ch ) will be full color.

13 11 4 Meiosis Gregor Mendel did not know where the genes he had discovered were located in the cell. Fortunately, his predictions of how genes should behave were so specific that it was not long before biologists were certain they had found them. Genes are located on chromosomes in the cell nucleus. Mendel s principles of genetics require at least two things. First, each organism must inherit a single copy of every gene from each of its parents. Second, when an organism produces its own gametes, those two sets of genes must be separated from each other so that each gamete contains just one set of genes. This means that when gametes are formed, there must be a process that separates the two sets of genes so that each gamete ends up with just one set. Although Mendel didn t know it, gametes are formed through exactly such a process. Chromosome Number As an example of how this process works, let s consider the fruit fly, Drosophila. A body cell in an adult fruit fly has 8 chromosomes, as shown in Figure Four of the chromosomes came from the fruit fly s male parent, and 4 came from its female parent. These two sets of chromosomes are homologous (hoh-mahl-uh-guhs), meaning that each of the 4 chromosomes that came from the male parent has a corresponding chromosome from the female parent. A cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes is said to be diploid, which means two sets. The number of chromosomes in a diploid cell is sometimes represented by the symbol 2N. Thus for Drosophila, the diploid number is 8, which can be written 2N = 8. Diploid cells contain two complete sets of chromosomes and two complete sets of genes. This agrees with Mendel s idea that the cells of an adult organism contain two copies of each gene. By contrast, the gametes of sexually reproducing organisms, including fruit flies and peas, contain only a single set of chromosomes, and therefore only a single set of genes. Such cells are said to be haploid, which means one set. For Drosophila, this can be written as N = 4, meaning that the haploid number is 4. Phases of Meiosis How are haploid (N) gamete cells produced from diploid (2N) cells? That s where meiosis (my-oh-sis) comes in. Meiosis is a process of reduction division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell. SECTION RESOURCES Key Concepts What happens during the process of meiosis? How is meiosis different from mitosis? Vocabulary homologous diploid haploid meiosis tetrad crossing-over Reading Strategy: Using Visuals Before you read, preview Figure As you read, note what happens at each stage of meiosis. Figure These chromosomes are from a fruit fly. Each of the fruit fly s body cells has 8 chromosomes. Section FOCUS Objectives Contrast the chromosome number of body cells and gametes Summarize the events of meiosis Contrast meiosis and mitosis. Vocabulary Preview Explain that the prefix hapl- comes from the Greek word haplous, which means single. The word haploid refers to cells that have a single set of chromosomes. Ask: If the prefix diplo- means double, what does the word diploid refer to? (A cell with two sets of chromosomes) Reading Strategy Before students read the section, encourage them to preview the Vocabulary words by finding the highlighted, boldface terms in the section and listing them. Tell students to leave space on their lists to make notes as they read. 2 INSTRUCT Chromosome Number Use Visuals Figure Point out that the homologous chromosomes in the illustration are the same color. Make sure students understand that one complete set of chromosomes one green, one red, one yellow, and one purple came from each parent. Ask: What would happen if the gametes were 2N? (Offspring would have 4N chromosomes.) Print: Teaching Resources, Section Review 11 4, Chapter 11 Exploration Reading and Study Workbook A, Section 11 4 Adapted Reading and Study Workbook B, Section 11 4 Lesson Plans, Section 11 4 Technology: itext, Section 11 4 Animated Biological Concepts Videotape Library, 17, 18, 22 Transparencies Plus, Section 11 4 Lab Simulations CD-ROM, Meiosis Introduction to Genetics 275

14 11 4 (continued) Phases of Meiosis Use Visuals Figure Have volunteers use their own words to describe what is occurring during each step of meiosis. Ask: Which cell is diploid? (The original cell) Which cell is haploid? (The daughter cells of meiosis I through the daughter cells of meiosis II) Discuss the difference between the divisions in meiosis I and meiosis II. Make sure students understand that homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis I and the centromeres and sister chromatids separate during meiosis II. Address Misconceptions Some students might confuse mitosis and meiosis. The most difficult point to understand is that the daughter cells produced after meiosis I are already haploid; they contain only one set of chromosomes. Have students compare diagrams of mitosis and meiosis. Point out that DNA replication occurs in prophase I; however, the duplicate chromosomes (sister chromatids) do not separate until meiosis II. Also point out that the division in meiosis II is like that of mitosis centromeres divide to separate the sister chromatids. Emphasize that meiosis occurs only in cells that form gametes; it does not occur in body cells. For: Meiosis activity Visit: PHSchool.com Web Code: cbe-4114 Students interact with the art of meiosis online. MEIOSIS Figure During meiosis, the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of the homologous chromosomes. The result of meiosis is 4 haploid cells that are genetically different from one another and from the original cell. Interphase I Cells undergo a round of DNA replication, forming duplicate chromosomes. For: Meiosis activity Visit: PHSchool.com Web Code: cbp-4114 NSTA For: Links on meiosis Visit: Web Code: cbn-4114 MEIOSIS I Prophase I Each chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome to form a tetrad. Metaphase I Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes. Anaphase I The fibers pull the homologous chromosomes toward opposite ends of the cell. Telophase I and Cytokinesis Nuclear membranes form. The cell separates into two cells. Meiosis usually involves two distinct divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II. By the end of meiosis II, the diploid cell that entered meiosis has become 4 haploid cells. Figure shows meiosis in an organism that has a diploid number of 4 (2N = 4). Meiosis I Prior to meiosis I, each chromosome is replicated. The cells then begin to divide in a way that looks similar to mitosis. In mitosis, the 4 chromosomes line up individually in the center of the cell. The 2 chromatids that make up each chromosome then separate from each other. In prophase of meiosis I, however, each chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome to form a structure called a tetrad. There are 4 chromatids in a tetrad. This pairing of homologous chromosomes is the key to understanding meiosis. As homologous chromosomes pair up and form tetrads in meiosis I, they exchange portions of their chromatids in a process called crossing-over. Crossing-over, shown in Figure 11 16, results in the exchange of alleles between homologous chromosomes and produces new combinations of alleles. What happens next? The homologous chromosomes separate, and two new cells are formed. Although each cell now has 4 chromatids (as it would after mitosis), something is different. 276 Chapter 11 Inclusion/Special Needs Review the location of chromosomes in the cell. Diagram a pair of homologous chromosomes in a cell. Then, work backward to show how one chromosome came from the mother and one from the father. Point out the location of a gene. Show how it can have two alleles. Less Proficient Readers Have students develop a flowchart that shows the phases of meiosis. Students can refer to Figure but should draw their own diagrams and use their own words to describe what is occurring during each step. Advanced Learners Challenge students to write a story about a chromosome going through meiosis for the first time. Encourage students to use illustrations and to be creative, but they must give accurate information about the movement of chromosomes.

15 Applying Concepts Challenge students to draw diagrams of meiosis that show how seed color and seed shape in Mendel s peas are traits whose genes assort independently. Make sure students realize that the genes for seed shape and seed color are on different chromosomes. Ask: If the genes for seed shape and seed color had not assorted independently, what could you assume about the genes for these traits? (The genes for these traits are located on the same chromosome.) Demonstration Use pipe cleaners of different colors to show how a tetrad forms from two homologous chromosomes. Connect sister chromatids together by threading two pipe cleaners through a bead. Ask: What structure does the bead represent? (Centromere) Overlap the pipe cleaners to simulate crossing-over. Then, cut and tape the pipe cleaners to simulate the breaking and recombination of chromosomes to form the genetically different chromatids. Discuss the significance of crossing-over. Elicit from students that crossing-over increases genetic diversity. Ask: Will crossingover cause a different phenotype in the offspring of true-breeding parents? (No, the homologous chromosomes are homozygous for the particular trait because they have the same allele for the gene that encodes the trait. Crossing-over will cause portions of the chromosomes to be mixed, but if the alleles are identical, crossingover is not detected.) MEIOSIS II Prophase II Meiosis I results in two haploid (N) daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. Metaphase II The chromosomes line up in a similar way to the metaphase stage of mitosis. Anaphase II The sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite ends of the cell. Because each pair of homologous chromosomes was separated, neither of the daughter cells has the two complete sets of chromosomes that it would have in a diploid cell. Those two sets have been shuffled and sorted almost like a deck of cards. The two cells produced by meiosis I have sets of chromosomes and alleles that are different from each other and from the diploid cell that entered meiosis I. Meiosis II The two cells produced by meiosis I now enter a second meiotic division. Unlike the first division, neither cell goes through a round of chromosome replication before entering meiosis II. Each of the cell s chromosomes has 2 chromatids. During metaphase II of meiosis, chromosomes line up in the center of each cell. In anaphase II, the paired chromatids separate. In this example, each of the four daughter cells produced in meiosis II receives 2 chromatids. Those four daughter cells now contain the haploid number (N) just 2 chromosomes each A B C D E A B C D E Telophase II and Cytokinesis Meiosis II results in four haploid (N) daughter cells. A B C D E a b c d e A a BC b c d e D E a b c d e a b c d e Figure Crossing-over occurs during meiosis. (1) Homologous chromosomes form a tetrad. (2) Chromatids cross over one another. (3) The crossed sections of the chromatids are exchanged. Interpreting Graphics How does crossing-over affect the alleles on a chromatid? TEACHER TO TEACHER A B C D E A B c d e a b C D E a b c d e NSTA Download a worksheet on meiosis for students to complete, and find additional teacher support from NSTA SciLinks. I find that mitosis and meiosis are difficult for students to understand, so I use an overhead projector and pipe cleaners to model both processes. I demonstrate that chromosomes occur in pairs and show how chromosomes are involved in genetic continuity and variety. After I finish, I have students actively participate in using the overhead projector and pipe cleaners to model the processes for their peers. This teaching strategy facilitates their understanding of these challenging topics. Tracy Swedlund Biology Teacher Medford Area Senior High Medford, WI Answers to... Meiosis is a process of reduction division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half. Figure The alleles can be exchanged between chromatids of homologous chromosomes to produce new combinations of alleles. Introduction to Genetics 277

16 11 4 (continued) Gamete Formation Use Visuals Figure Use the illustrations to help students see the end results of meiosis. Emphasize that the cells are haploid after meiosis I. Ask: In what cells does meiosis occur? (Only in cells of the reproductive organs that will form gametes) Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis Using Analogies Challenge students to contrast the results of mitosis and meiosis using three pairs of alleles : a red glove and a yellow glove, a green sock and a blue sock, and a white shoe and a black shoe. (After mitosis, all cells would have the same six items. After meiosis, a gamete could have any combination of glove, sock, and shoe, such as a red glove, blue sock, and black shoe.) 3 ASSESS Evaluate Understanding Have students list the stages of meiosis in order and describe what occurs during each stage. Sperm In Males N N Egg N 2N 2N Meiosis I N N N N In Females N Meiosis I N N N N Polar bodies Meiosis II Meiosis II Figure Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells. In males, meiosis results in four equal-sized gametes called sperm. In females, only one large egg cell results from meiosis. The other three cells, called polar bodies, usually are not involved in reproduction. Gamete Formation In male animals, the haploid gametes produced by meiosis are called sperm. In some plants, pollen grains contain haploid sperm cells. In female animals, generally only one of the cells produced by meiosis is involved in reproduction. This female gamete is called an egg in animals and an egg cell in some plants. In many female animals, the cell divisions at the end of meiosis I and meiosis II are uneven, so that a single cell, which becomes an egg, receives most of the cytoplasm, as shown in Figure The other three cells produced in the female during meiosis are known as polar bodies and usually do not participate in reproduction. Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis In a way, it s too bad that the words mitosis and meiosis sound so much like each other, because the two processes are very different. Mitosis results in the production of two genetically identical diploid cells, whereas meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells. A diploid cell that divides by mitosis gives rise to two diploid (2N) daughter cells. The daughter cells have sets of chromosomes and alleles that are identical to each other and to the original parent cell. Mitosis allows an organism s body to grow and replace cells. In asexual reproduction, a new organism is produced by mitosis of the cell or cells of the parent organism. Meiosis, on the other hand, begins with a diploid cell but produces four haploid (N) cells. These cells are genetically different from the diploid cell and from one another. Meiosis is how sexually reproducing organisms produce gametes. In contrast, asexual reproduction involves only mitosis. Reteach Have students review Figure Then, instruct them to diagram the movement of chromosomes as a cell goes through the stages of meiosis. Sexual reproduction, shuffling and separating of homologous chromosomes, and crossing-over events during meiosis produce gametes that are genetically different from each other and from the original cell. Fertilization with a gamete from a different parent further increases genetic variation. If your class subscribes to the itext, use it to review the Key Concepts in Section Section Assessment 1. Key Concept Describe the main results of meiosis. 2. Key Concept What are the principal differences between mitosis and meiosis? 3. What do the terms diploid and haploid mean? 4. What is crossing-over? 11 4 Section Assessment 1. Four haploid cells genetically different from each other and from the original cell 2. Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid cells; meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells. 3. Diploid: two sets of chromosomes; haploid: one set of chromosomes 4. Homologous chromosomes pair up and form tetrads, which may exchange portions of 5. Critical Thinking Applying Concepts In human cells, 2N = 46. How many chromosomes would you expect to find in a sperm cell? In an egg cell? In a white blood cell? Explain. Sexual and Asexual Reproduction In asexual reproduction, mitosis occurs, but not meiosis. Which type of reproduction sexual or asexual results in offspring with greater genetic variation? Explain your answer. their chromatids, resulting in the exchange of alleles between the homologous chromosomes. 5. Both sperm and egg cells have 23 chromosomes because they are gametes, which are haploid cells. A white blood cell has 46 chromosomes because it is a diploid body cell. 278 Chapter 11

17 11 5 Linkage and Gene Maps If you thought carefully about Mendel s principle of independent assortment as you analyzed meiosis, one question might have been bothering you. It s easy to see how genes located on different chromosomes assort independently, but what about genes located on the same chromosome? Wouldn t they generally be inherited together? Gene Linkage The answer to these questions, as Thomas Hunt Morgan first realized in 1910, is yes. Morgan s research on fruit flies led him to the principle of linkage. After identifying more than 50 Drosophila genes, Morgan discovered that many of them appeared to be linked together in ways that, at first glance, seemed to violate the principle of independent assortment. For example, a fly with reddish-orange eyes and miniature wings, like the one shown in Figure 11 18, was used in a series of crosses. The results showed that the genes for those traits were almost always inherited together and only rarely became separated from each other. Morgan and his associates observed so many genes that were inherited together that before long they could group all of the fly s genes into four linkage groups. The linkage groups assorted independently, but all of the genes in one group were inherited together. Drosophila has four linkage groups. It also has four pairs of chromosomes, which led to two remarkable conclusions. First, each chromosome is actually a group of linked genes. Second, Mendel s principle of independent assortment still holds true. It is the chromosomes, however, that assort independently, not individual genes. How did Mendel manage to miss gene linkage? By luck, or by design, six of the seven genes he studied are on different chromosomes. The two genes that are found on the same chromosome are so far apart that they also assort independently. Gene Maps If two genes are found on the same chromosome, does this mean that they are linked forever? Not at all. Crossing-over during meiosis sometimes separates genes that had been on the same chromosome onto homologous chromosomes. Crossover events occasionally separate and exchange linked genes and produce new combinations of alleles. This is important because it helps to generate genetic diversity. Key Concept What structures actually assort independently? Vocabulary gene map Reading Strategy: Predicting Before you read, preview Figure Predict how a diagram like this one can be used to determine how likely genes are to assort independently. As you read, note whether or not your prediction was correct. Figure The genes for this fruit fly s reddish-orange eyes and miniature wings are almost always inherited together. The reason for this is that the genes are close together on a single chromosome. It is the chromosomes that assort independently, not individual genes. Section FOCUS Objectives Identify the structures that actually assort independently Explain how gene maps are produced. Vocabulary Preview Have student volunteers describe what a map is. Elicit the fact that maps show the locations of places and things. Ask: What do you think a gene map is? (It shows the locations of genes on a chromosome.) Reading Strategy As students read, encourage them to write down the main ideas that lead them to determine whether or not their prediction was correct. 2 INSTRUCT Gene Linkage Using Models Students can construct a model of a chromosome with beads threaded on a pipe cleaner. The beads represent genes, and the pipe cleaner represents the chromosome. Challenge students to demonstrate why linked genes do not usually assort independently. Ask: Could there be exceptions to this? (Yes, if crossingover occurs.) How could crossingover affect the linked genes of a fruit fly? (Alleles could be exchanged between a maternal chromatid and a paternal chromatid.) SECTION RESOURCES Print: Teaching Resources, Section Review 11 5 Reading and Study Workbook A, Section 11 5 Adapted Reading and Study Workbook B, Section 11 5 Biotechnology Manual, Lab 2 Lesson Plans, Section 11 5 Technology: itext, Section 11 5 Transparencies Plus, Section 11 5 Gene Maps Use Visuals Figure As students study the gene map, ask: Would you expect more crossing-over events to occur between star eye and speck wing or between star eye and black body? Explain. (Star eye and speck wing; because these genes are located farther apart, it is more likely that a crossing-over event will occur between (continued) Introduction to Genetics 279

18 11 5 (continued) them.) Explain that recombination rates are calculated by determining the percentage of recombinants produced in a cross. Recombinant offspring have a phenotype that is different from either parent. For example, in a cross between a homozygous male with a black body (bb) and vestigial wings (vv) and heterozygous female (BbVv) with a brown body and normal wings, most of the F 2 offspring will look like either parent. However some of the offspring, about 20%, will have either a black body and normal wings or a brown body and vestigial wings. 3 ASSESS Evaluate Understanding Draw a hypothetical gene map on the board. Have students tell which genes would have high frequencies of crossing-over and which would not. Reteach Have students diagram a crossingover event to show how genes that are located close together have a lower frequency of recombination than genes that are located far apart. Figure This gene map shows the location of a variety of genes on chromosome 2 of the fruit fly. The genes are named after the problems abnormal alleles cause, not the normal structure. Interpreting Graphics Where on the chromosome is the purple eye gene located? Exact location on chromosome Chromosome Aristaless (no bristles on antenna) Star eye 13.0 Dumpy wing Dachs (short legs) Black body 51.0 Reduced bristles Section Assessment 54.5 Purple eye 55.0 Light eye 67.0 Vestigial (small) wing 75.5 Curved wing 99.2 Arc (bent wings) Brown eye Speck wing In 1911, a Columbia University student was working part time in Morgan s lab. This student, Alfred Sturtevant, hypothesized that the rate at which crossing-over separated linked genes could be the key to an important discovery. Sturtevant reasoned that the farther apart two genes were, the more likely they were to be separated by a crossover in meiosis. The rate at which linked genes were separated and recombined could then be used to produce a map of distances between genes. Sturtevant gathered up several notebooks of lab data and took them back to his room. The next morning, he presented Morgan with a gene map showing the relative locations of each known gene on one of the Drosophila chromosomes, as shown in Figure Sturtevant s method of using recombination rates, which measure the frequencies of crossing-over between genes, has been used to construct genetic maps, including maps of the human genome, ever since Paragraphs should explain that if the genes are usually inherited together, they are located near each other on the same chromosome. If they were far apart, crossing-over events would make them appear to be located on different linkage groups. 1. Key Concept How does the principle of independent assortment apply to chromosomes? 2. What are gene maps, and how are they produced? 3. How does crossing-over make gene mapping possible? 4. Critical Thinking Inferring If two genes are on the same chromosome but usually assort independently, what does that tell you about how close together they are? Cause-Effect Paragraph In your own words, explain why the alleles for reddishorange eyes and miniature wings in Drosophila are usually inherited together. Include the idea of gene linkage. Hint: To organize your ideas, draw a causeeffect diagram that shows what happens to the two alleles during meiosis. If your class subscribes to the itext, use it to review the Key Concepts in Section Answer to... Figure The purple eye gene is located at Chapter Section Assessment 1. It is the chromosomes that assort independently, not individual genes. 2. A gene map shows the relative locations of genes on a chromosome. The frequency of crossing-over between genes is used to produce a map of distances between genes. 3. The farther apart two genes are, the more likely they are to be separated during a crossover in meiosis. Therefore, the frequency of crossing-over is equal to the distance between two genes. 4. The two genes are located very far apart from each other.

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