National Action Plan for the Conservation of Marine Mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea 2012 to 2016

Transcription

1 National Action Plan for the Conservation of Marine Mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea 2012 to 2016 Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara in cooperation with Mahmoud Fouad, Nature Conservation Section, EEAA 30 August 2011

2 National Action Plan for the Conservation of Marine Mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea 2012 to 2016 Study required and financed by: Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas Boulevard du Leader Yasser Arafat BP Tunis Cedex Tunisie Responsible of the study: Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara, Tethys Research Institute, Milano, Italy With the participation of : Mahmoud Fouad, Nature Conservation Sector, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, Cairo Cover illustration: Sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus, photographed in the Mediterranean Sea (photo credit: Alessia Scuderi/Tethys Research Institute). This report should be quoted as: Notarbartolo di Sciara G., Fouad M National Action Plan for the conservation of marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea 2012 to Contract RAC/SPA 2011, 54 p. 2

3 Contents Foreword... 4 List of acronyms and abbreviations Introduction Conservation strategy for marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean ( ) Goal Objectives Rationale and framework for protecting marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Rationale for protecting marine mammals in Egypt Legislative framework relevant to marine mammal protection in Egypt Threats Main anthropogenic threats and their known or suspected impacts on marine mammals Possible impacts of anthropogenic threats on Egyptian Mediterranean marine mammals Areas of special conservation importance Benefits and constraints of Marine Protected Areas for marine mammals Possible important areas for marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Capacity building The Action Plan Actions needed to reach Objective Actions needed to reach Objective Actions needed to reach Objective Implementation of the Action Plan Revision of the Action Plan Acknowledgments Literature cited Appendix 1. Report of a field trip to the Mediterranean coast of Egypt Appendix 2. List of marine mammal species found, or likely to be found, in Egyptian Mediterranean waters Appendix 3. Case study: protection of spinner dolphins in Samadai, Egyptian Red Sea

4 Foreword The first time I came in contact with marine mammals was in 1965, during summer holiday at Ras el Bar, near Domietta, along the coast of the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea. In that occasion I saw many dolphins swimming around us, and we were so excited with their performance and friendly way toward us. At that time I wanted to know everything about dolphins. The second time was in 1981 when I was in a field trip with my marine biology students in the Red Sea, where I was told a whale was killed by some military personnel, and the staff of the National Institute of Oceanography and Fishery, Hurghada Branch, brought it to the shore and left it there without studying it. I took a picture of the dead whale, and show it to my late Professor Hamed Gohar, who was so surprised and spent more than 30 minutes examining the picture, and he told me it was a new record for the Red Sea. He also told me that there are more than 20 species of marine mammals in the Red Sea either resident or migratory. I was so pleased that the Egyptian waters are rich with marine mammals; however, nothing was published about them except Dugong dugon. The third time was in 1985 when I attended a conference in Cochin, India, on endangered marine mammals, where I was met with a very interesting group of experts on marine mammals, mostly from Cambridge, U.K and some from the USA. I was told many interesting stories on these creatures. So, I decided to make the first article on marine mammals in Egypt which was published in Arabic. When I took over the Directorship of the Nature Conservation Sector/ Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, I decided to give marine mammals a priority. The opportunity was there during 2003 when I attended IUCN meeting in Durban, South Africa, and met with my dear friends Marie- Christine Grillo and Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara, of ACCOBAMS. They have provided their expertise to make the first dolphin sanctuary in the Red Sea, at Samadai, which has proven to be an excellent model for transforming dolphins from a non resource to a very valuable resource where everyone benefited from this initiative. That was not the case for the Mediterranean Sea as we did not have both resources and expertise. However, ACCOBAMS and RAC/SPA have generously provided training to our staff, and facilities where we were able to join ACCOBAMS in 2010 and start our conservation work on marine mammals. The first step for biodiversity conservation is to know what are the species, their distribution, abundance, and threats facing them. You also need to know who are involved in conservation, research, public awareness and other stakeholders such as NGOs and local communities. These issues are included in the First National Action Plan for the Conservation of Marine Mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea to We shall provide all the support needed to implement this plan. Finally, we thank both ACCOBAMS and RAC/SPA for their continuous efforts and support. Professor Moustafa M. Fouda Minister Advisor on Biodiversity EEAA/NCS 4

5 List of acronyms and abbreviations ACCOBAMS CBD CITES CMS EEAA EMW ER MAP MPA NCS NGO RAC/SPA UNCLOS UNEP Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Contiguous Atlantic Zone Convention on Biological Diversity Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna Convention on Migratory Species Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency Egyptian Mediterranean Waters encounter rate Mediterranean Action Plan marine protected area Nature Conservation Sector non- governmental organisation Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea United Nations Environment Programme 5

6 1. Introduction Marine mammals are represented in Egyptian Mediterranean Waters (EMW) by two major taxonomic groups: the Order Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises) and the Order Carnivora, Superfamily Pinnipedia, Family Phocidae. There is no certainty about what species of Cetacea occur in Mediterranean Egypt (Fig. 1). Of the 11 cetacean species represented by populations regularly occurring in the Mediterranean Sea, only eight can be presumed to be regularly occurring in the coastal and pelagic waters adjacent to the Egyptian Mediterranean coasts (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Birkun 2010). These include one Mysticete species, the fin whale Balaenoptera physalus, and seven Odontocetes: the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus, the Cuvier s beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris, the Risso s dolphin Grampus griseus, the common bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus, the rough- toothed dolphin Steno bredanensis, the striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba, and the short- beaked common dolphin Delphinus delphis. The three remaining species which regularly occur in parts of the Mediterranean (the killer whale Orcinus orca, the long- finned pilot whale Globicephala meals, and the harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena) are unlikely to be regularly found in EMW, the first being limited to Gibraltar Strait waters, the second to the western basin, and the third to the Northern Aegean Sea. The regular presence in EMW of most of the eight cetacean species mentioned above, however, as well as the extent of their occurrence, perhaps with the exception of common bottlenose dolphins, must be still considered hypothetical due to lack of sufficient original knowledge. Fig. 1. The Egyptian Mediterranean coast. The monk seal Monachus monachus, the only pinniped found in the Mediterranean Sea, once regular throughout most of the region s coasts, until very recently was considered extinct in Egypt (Aguilar and Lowry 2008), at least since the 20 th century (Anon. 2006). It was only in early 2011 that proof of its occurrence in Egypt, in the vicinity of the city of Marsa Matrouh, was collected (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Fouad 2011). Information on the presence of marine mammals in EMW is very scarce in the scientific literature. Flower (1932) reported that monk seals occurred in some numbers along the coast to the west of Alexandria in the XIX century, and that several were said to have been killed during World War I. Amongst cetaceans, the same author reports a large balaenopterid 39 feet in length, most likely a fin whale, stranded in May 1922 near Marsa Matrouh, and a sperm whale said to have stranded on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt. Common dolphins and bottlenose dolphins were frequently reported in the Port Said harbour and adjacent waters 6

7 (Flower 1932, Mözer Bruyns 1971). A fragment of the skull of a false killer whale Pseudorca crassidens was found on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt north of Baltim, in the Nile Delta (Wassif 1956). False killer whales are considered visitors to the Mediterranean Sea (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Birkun 2010). Cetacean sighting and acoustic surveys conducted in the Eastern Mediterranean by the International Fund for Animal Welfare between 2003 and 2007 to provide scientific information needed for the implementation of conservation measures, on behalf of ACCOBAMS, could not occur within the Egyptian EEZ because Egyptian authorities denied research permission (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Birkun 2010). Whatever the level of marine mammal diversity in EMW, the highest concern is warranted that such natural richness might be at risk because of the rapidly growing degradation of the marine environment everywhere in the Mediterranean, and in the EMW in particular. Unfortunately, in spite of the many legal requirements to devise and adopt a strategy to counteract threats to marine mammal survival in Egypt e.g., within the framework of the Barcelona Convention commitments, and more recently within that of ACCOBAMS no special conservation efforts have been implemented yet at this time. This Action Plan identifies measures intended to halt and reverse such likely decline in the years to come. The formulation of the Action Plan, promoted by the Nature Conservation Sector (NCS) of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) in cooperation with the Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas (RAC/SPA) of UNEP s Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), is offered here as a key policy tool to base future actions towards improving the marine mammals conservation status in Egypt. Many of the recommended measures should be grounded in an increasing appreciation by civil society of the range of goods and services provided by healthy and well- conserved marine ecosystems, and their associated biodiversity. Such process will succeed if marine conservation is incorporated into the system of values of the general public in Egypt. An effective conservation strategy should therefore become a nation- wide effort, through which people are made aware of the links between their individual behaviour and the state of their country s environment. Conserving nature, and therefore conserving the sea, should be grounded in this new understanding, and encompass behavioural changes that involve all sectors of society in a country that is vigorously rediscovering its sense of place, ownership and stewardship. While many of the measures recommended in this Action Plan specifically pertain to marine mammal conservation, such measures make little sense if marine degradation is not halted through the proper management of fishing pressure, coastal development, proliferation of shipping and boating, chemical and noise pollution, and climate change. All these pressures are already addressed by several regulations, enshrined in international and national commitments that Egypt has subscribed to, and these must be heeded while specific problems affecting marine mammals are addressed. Such effort can work in both directions. Addressing marine mammal conservation problems may be a very good opportunity for awakening the country to the worsening conditions of the marine environment, and for stimulating people into acting to change this condition. Whales and dolphins are quite popular amongst the general public, and as charismatic animals they can provide impetus for conveying the right message concerning marine conservation. The proposed Action Plan identifies three objectives to reach the ultimate goal of ensuring the recovery and long- term viability of marine mammals in Egyptian waters: 1) collect and expand knowledge on the status of marine mammal populations and of their environment in the Egyptian Mediterranean, necessary to the implementation of a conservation strategy, 2) identify and involve national stakeholders in the process of conserving marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean, and enable them to contribute through targeted capacity building actions, and 3) increase national awareness on the conservation of marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean through targeted campaigns. In order to establish initial contacts with stakeholders in the area of marine mammal conservation in Egypt, and explore possibilities for partnership concerning the attainment of one or more of the objectives mentioned above, a short field trip was organised in Spring 2011 (5-9 April), with the participation of three experts from the NCS (Mahmoud Fouad, Wissam Farag and 7

8 Mohamed Said, one from the RAC/SPA Yassine Ramzi Sghaier, and the author of this document. A report of that trip is provided in Appendix 1. The effectiveness of the Action Plan actions will be assessed through deliverables and indicators, as appropriate. It is envisaged that at the end of the quinquennium a general assessment of the Action Plan s accomplishments will be conducted, and that a second Action Plan for the following quinquennium will be generated on such bases. 8

9 2. Conservation strategy for marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean ( ) 2.1. Goal Achieving and maintaining the favourable conservation status of marine mammals living in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters Objectives In order to attain the strategic goal, three objectives are identified, to be reached by The objectives are briefly described below. The almost complete lack of information on the species of marine mammals present in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters, as well as on their population ecology (distribution, abundance and structure) and existing anthropogenic pressures, makes it very difficult to envisage conservation actions that would address such pressures and contribute to these mammals favourable conservation status. For this reason the activities proposed during this first quinquennium will be largely limited to: a) the acquisition of the necessary knowledge; b) the identification, involvement and capacity building of stakeholders; and c) the promotion of national awareness. No hierarchy of priority is intended amongst the objectives: all are equally important, and should be pursued in parallel; each objective is conceived to work in synergy with the others. 1) Collect and expand knowledge on the status of marine mammal populations and of their environment in the Egyptian Mediterranean, necessary to the implementation of a conservation strategy The fundamental importance of science to inform the management process is so evident that it does not need to be reiterated. Indeed, insufficient knowledge may prevent the adoption of meaningful conservation measures, while research will provide data that are essential to design and implement successful actions. The role of science in the conservation of marine mammals and their ecosystems is crucial because it provides information to decision makers, facilitating more informed decisions, policies, regulations and laws. However, the risks of simply perpetuating calls for more research must also be considered. While inaction may be often justified by lack of sufficient information, in many cases waiting for more and better data delays the conservation process indefinitely, diminishing the capability of producing timely results. In Egypt, where baseline information is largely missing and conservation problems are likely acute, it is particularly important to assign priorities to research and obtain information in a timely manner, while ensuring that the management process is implemented, on the basis of the precautionary principle, without delay. Common sense must be combined with the available scientific evidence in developing reasonable and timely action, as long as conclusive scientific data are unavailable (Reynolds et al. 2009). However, considering that in some cases information is still too scant to allow the implementation of effective conservation measures, there is an urgency of collecting at least baseline ecological data on populations and threats. Accordingly, actions to reach this Objective will involve: a) an effort to raise the needed funds and organise actions to collect basic information about the population ecology (abundance, distribution and structure) of marine mammal species present in the EMW through dedicated 9

10 surveys and longitudinal studies in selected areas; b) laying the bases for the establishment of a National Marine Mammal Stranding Network along the entire coastline of the EM; c) the collection of information on existing anthropogenic pressures in the EMW having a potential impact on marine mammal populations: fishing, pollution, noise, shipping, coastal construction, tourism, disturbance, direct killing, etc.; and d) a first inventory of marine and coastal localities thought to (or proved to) contain marine mammal critical habitat that appear to be of special conservation interest where specific management actions targeting well- identified threats to marine mammals should be taken. 2) Identify and involve national stakeholders in the process of conserving marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean, and enable them to contribute through targeted capacity building actions While the primary responsibility for the success of this Action Plan will be of the Nature Conservation Sector of the EEAA, a national marine mammal conservation strategy cannot be carried out within a vacuum. To the contrary, results can be obtained only through a widely shared effort, which should see the multifaceted contribution from a diverse array of stakeholders. For instance: a) central (e.g., Environment, Agriculture & Fisheries, Science, Defence Ministries) and peripheral government agencies (Governorates); b) enforcement agencies (Coast Guard, Navy); c) Marine Protected Area managers (e.g., Sallum, Ashtum El Gamil, Zaranic, Uhmaiet); d) the scientific community, and academic and cultural organisations; e) artisanal fishermen and their fishing syndicates; f) representatives of the industry (e.g., transport, oil & gas, fishing, tourism), and all the concerned NGOs. Objective 2 will consist of a thorough identification of the stakeholders, of joint actions with each stakeholder category to support marine mammal conservation, and of the capacity building actions needed to empower such stakeholders to fully contribute to the success of the Action Plan. 3) Increase national awareness on the conservation of marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean through targeted campaigns Since all threats to marine mammals derive from human actions, conservation ultimately depends on political decisions affecting human behaviour. The fate of marine mammals living in Egyptian waters depends on the political will to take responsible and precautionary action to mitigate the known anthropogenic threats. While in principle society has already accepted the need to change human behaviour in order to conserve marine mammals in Egypt as attested by the laws and regulations protecting these animals - ensuring that civil society at the national level is aware of the existence in Egyptian waters of charismatic, yet highly vulnerable fauna, which is legally protected but at the same time under threat of disappearing if management and conservation action is not taken, will be essential to reach the strategic goal. Therefore, public awareness and education represent an essential part of this Action Plan. People must become aware that marine mammals are an important component of their natural world, that the animals existence is threatened, and that there are good reasons to protect them. Awareness will favour the process whereby people will start to care for the nation s marine mammals. The Action Plan highlights the need to conduct public campaigns following well- defined, science- based public awareness strategies, and identifies a series of awareness and education actions targeting relevant stakeholders, managers, teachers, school children and the general public. 10

11 3. Rationale and framework for protecting marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean 3.1. Rationale for protecting marine mammals in Egypt The world s oceans are populated by millions of species, and one may wonder what is the point of investing special attention, effort and resources to conserve a single group of animals - whales, dolphins and porpoises. It can be argued, however, that for a number of reasons protecting marine mammals may have important cascading effects which transcend the strict conservation value of these charismatic species. A. The first reason is that marine mammals are important components of marine biodiversity. Biodiversity allows for the proper functioning of ecological systems, and the importance of preserving it cannot be underestimated (Worm et al. 2006). The need for conserving biodiversity is a widely accepted principle globally, sanctioned by a large number of international conventions and treaties, most notably the Convention on Biological Diversity, in force since 1993 and signed by 168 nations (Egypt included of course). On the basis of such widely accepted principles, endeavouring to conserve marine biodiversity and in particular marine mammals, in Egypt like elsewhere, should be advocated. The fact that current national, regional and international legislation unambiguously provides for the protection of marine mammals demonstrates that society has embraced the concept, at least in theory. Marine mammals are essential components of marine biodiversity and losing them weakens and damages the ecosystems they are part of, by virtue of their important role of apex predators in marine food webs. B. The second reason for protecting marine mammals is that these charismatic species may serve the function of sustaining the protection of marine biota at the regional and national scales, by virtue of their quality of flagship and umbrella species (Caro and O Doherty 1999, Roberge and Angelstam 2004). Marine mammals may serve well the function of umbrella species because they range widely, can be relatively easily monitored, and share their ecosystem with other species that may not be readily surveyed. Given their charismatic status, like other marine vertebrates, marine mammals also fulfil well the function of flagship species because they exert a strong fascination on the wide public and are thus more amenable to be used to raise public awareness and financial support to promote broad conservation action. C. Finally, the goal of preserving marine mammals in Egypt is fully consistent with the protection of natural resources that are amongst the country s most important heritage and appeal, with relevant economic consequences (e.g., in tourism). A rich and diverse natural environment is a treasure to be preserved for the benefit of present and future generations. Marine environments containing healthy marine mammal populations have an aesthetic and cultural value and may attract visitors who want to enjoy a place where whales, dolphins and seals are still thriving. 11

12 3.2. Legislative framework relevant to marine mammal protection in Egypt National legislation Marine mammals in principle benefit from clear legal protection in Egypt. By ratifying international conventions and introducing over the years national legislation, the clear intent of the Egyptian Legislator was to protect not only these species themselves, but their habitat as well. The following legislation instruments are of particular relevance, direct and indirect, to marine mammal conservation in Egypt: Law 102 of 1983 for Nature Protectorates, providing the legislative framework in and managing protected areas in Egypt which are defined as, "any area of land r coastal or inland water characterized by special flora, fauna and natural features having cultural, scientific, tourism or aesthetic value". With growing awareness of importance of managing resource use to sustain development, as well as awareness of rapid environmental degradation, increased attention was given to environmental protection. Law 4 of 1994 for the Protection of the Environment which is amended by Law 9/2009. became the primary legislation for environmental management, creating the Nature Conservation Sector for management of Egypt's protected areas. Law 124 of 1983 regulating fisheries, forced by General Authority for Fish Resources Development. International agreements Marine mammal conservation is very high on the agenda of a large number of international environmental agreements, ratified by Egypt. These include, most notably: The Convention for the protection of the marine environment and the coastal region of the Mediterranean (Barcelona, 1976 and 1995), also known as the Barcelona Convention, ratified by Egypt in August The Convention is complemented by a number of specific Protocols, including the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean, which has relevance to the protection of marine mammals. A Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas (RAC/SPA) was established in Tunis with the mandate of supporting Parties to the Convention in the implementation of the Protocol s provisions. In particular, the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention adopted in 1987 and Action Plan for the management of the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) (UNEP/MAP 2003), and in 1991 an Action Plan for the conservation of Mediterranean cetaceans (UNEP/MAP 1991), setting up conservation priorities (prohibition of deliberate taking; prevention and elimination of pollution; elimination of incidental catches in fishing gear; prevention of over- exploitation of fishery resources; protection of feeding, breeding and calving grounds including through the establishment of a network of marine reserves; monitoring, research and data collection and dissemination with regard to biology, behaviour, range and habitats of marine mammals; and educational activities aimed at the public at large and fishermen) and obligations for the Parties. The Mediterranean Action Plan of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP MAP), with headquarters based in Athens, acts as the Secretariat of the Convention. The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, also known as CMS or Bonn Convention (Bonn, 1979), ratified by Egypt in February The Mediterranean monk seal, the fin whale, the sperm whale and the short- beaked common dolphin are listed in the Convention s Appendix I (strictly protected migratory species that have been categorized as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of their range); the same species and striped dolphins 12

13 are also listed in Appendix II (migratory species which have an unfavourable conservation status and which require international agreements for their conservation and management, as well as those which have a conservation status which would significantly benefit from the international cooperation that could be achieved by an international agreement). The Agreement on the Conservation of Marine mammals of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Contiguous Atlantic Area, also known as ACCOBAMS (Monaco, 1996), a special agreement established under the framework of CMS, its parent convention, aimed at the protection of all marine mammal species found in the Agreement area. Ratified by Egypt in June The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as CITES or Washington Convention (Washington, 1973), forbidding trade in endangered species listed in its Appendix I (including, as far as marine mammals regularly found in Egyptian waters are concerned, monk seals, fin whales and sperm whales), and regulating trade in other species, listed in Appendix II (all other marine mammal species). Ratified by Egypt in April The Convention on Biological Diversity, also known as CBD (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), although not explicitly referring to marine mammals, urges Contracting Parties to develop national programmes that will safeguard their natural heritage and biological diversity. Ratified by Egypt in June The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, also known as UNCLOS (Montego Bay, 1982), has special provisions for marine mammals (Art. 65: States shall cooperate with a view to the conservation of marine mammals... ). Ratified by Egypt in December

14 4. Threats 4.1. Main anthropogenic threats and their known or suspected impacts on marine mammals Marine mammals are threatened by a variety of human factors, which jeopardizes their long- term conservation. Such threats can be particularly severe in the Mediterranean, where human pressures having a very high intensity in a reduced space negatively affect marine mammal populations (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Birkun 2010). Most of these threats can reasonably be expected to increase in the foreseeable future (Reynolds et al. 2009), unless mitigation measures are promptly adopted and implemented. The main anthropogenic pressures that globally threaten the survival of marine mammal populations include: Accidental captures in fishery activities (bycatch). Mortality or injury inflicted through the accidental entanglement in fishing gear of all types (including passive and active nets, longlines, traps, discarded or lost nets and lines, gear accessories, etc.) and illegal fishing practices (e.g., use of dynamite). Intentional captures. Killing or capture of marine mammals for use of products for human consumption or other, live capture, hostile acts provoked by actual or perceived damage to fishing activities, sport, and no apparent reason. Contamination by xenobiotic compounds. Accumulation in the body tissues (mostly through the food web) of xenobiotics (including POPs and trace elements) known to adversely affect mammalian functions and health. Oil pollution. Mortality or health problems deriving from contamination, contact or ingestion of hydrocarbons deriving from oil spills and oil derivates at sea. Prey depletion. Depletion of food resources caused by the direct and indirect effects of fishing activities, illegal fishing and overfishing. Collisions with vessels. Mortality or injury inflicted through collisions with a vessel or its part. Disturbance. Behavioural disruption through intentional or non- intentional approaches, likely or proven to induce long- term effects in the population. Acoustic pollution. Mortality, injury or disturbance deriving from exposure to impulsive or prolonged man- made sound reaching noxious intensity and/or frequency levels. Ingestion of solid debris. Mortality or injury deriving from the ingestion of foreign objects and materials, such as plastic, wood, textiles, etc. (in general obstructing part of the digestive tract). Climate and ecosystem change. Habitat degradation caused by coastal development and other direct or indirect changes in the ecosystem resulting from human activities, including climate change (e.g. eutrophication, harmful algal blooms, prey depletion resulting from habitat degradation, alien species invasion, changes in the physical and chemical properties of the environment). Considering that the impact of the various anthropogenic threats varies according to species, habitat, and geographic area, it is extremely difficult to assess their relative importance for marine mammals generally. Indeed, some threats may be important for some species or local populations and less relevant for others. The scarcity of scientific information on cause- effect relationships makes it even harder to draw general conclusions. However, it is important to realise that the impact of human activities on marine 14

15 mammals is certainly much more pervasive than what can be seen through the narrow lens of obvious direct impact. While some threats may appear more dramatic, and may be easier to document (especially direct threats such as intentional killing of marine mammals, mortality in fishing gear or collision events) threats that are indirect and less visible may have an equal or even greater negative impact at the population level, eventually resulting in population decline or local extinction. In addition, when threats act cumulatively on the same population, end results may be greater than the simple algebraic sum of the impacts (Halpern et al. 2008). It is therefore important that effective management measures are not based exclusively on anecdotal evidence or ease of documenting a given threat, but also on a thorough understanding of human impacts on the marine environment on which whales and dolphins ultimately depend. As pointed out by Lotze and Worm (2009), current trends in marine ecosystems need to be interpreted against a solid understanding of the magnitude and drivers of past changes. Many populations of large marine animals worldwide have declined by 90% or more from historical abundance as a consequence of overharvesting, climate variation and other factors (Myers and Worm 2003, Ferretti et al. 2008, Lotze and Worm 2009). It is therefore mandatory to consider both the immediate and the long- term impacts, and to evaluate the various anthropogenic threats to marine mammals and marine biodiversity in the appropriate historical context Possible impacts of anthropogenic threats on Egyptian Mediterranean marine mammals No published information is available on impacts of human activities on marine mammals in EMW, and in fact the collection of such information is part of one of the Objectives of this Action Plan. However, it is safe to assume that the many pressures that are exerted by such activities on the marine environment are likely to impact on the conservation status of the marine mammals frequenting EMW. These include: Accidental captures in fishery activities (bycatch). Although in large part fisheries in EMW use gears such as bottom trawling nets and small pelagic purse seines - that are not known to cause massive bycatch of marine mammals, accidental captures may be important in trammel nets deployed by small- scale artisanal fisheries, particularly as far as bottlenose dolphins and juvenile monk seals are concerned. Intentional captures. Fishermen animosity may derive to marine mammals when these engage in operative interactions with their activities resulting in damage to the catch and/or gear. This may be a conservation problem particularly as far as small scale artisanal fisheries are concerned, which are more vulnerable to depredation by marine mammals. Rumours of a monk seal having been killed in Marsa Matrouh in 2011, within 10 days from the first reappearance of the species in Egypt in several decades (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Fouad 2011) lend credit to the hypothesis that intentional killing of marine mammals might be a significant conservation problem in Egypt. Oil pollution and contamination by xenobiotic compounds. Ingestion of solid debris. Considering the high level of pollution of the coastal Mediterranean waters of Egypt, particularly in the eastern part (Nile Delta and Alexandria), including urban, agricultural and industrial waste and large amounts of solid debris it seems quite unlikely that marine mammals, especially coastal cetaceans, are unaffected. Water quality conditions are likely to be better along the western portion of the Egyptian Mediterranean coast. A first knowledge base on the magnitude of the phenomenon should be collected through analyses of stranded cetaceans. Prey depletion. This pressure could occur where fishing pressure is most intense, such as off the Nile Delta. However a more in- depth analysis is needed to assess the seriousness of this threat, taking into account the species involved, the population sizes, and their trophic position in the ecosystem where fisheries are also operating. 15

16 Collisions with vessels. Even if intense, traffic of traditional fishing vessels is unlikely to be seriously affecting coastal dolphins. Large ships may affect greater- size cetaceans (such as fin and sperm whales) in the offshore waters, however no information is available about the presence there of such species. Disturbance. This source of pressure is unlikely to be significant in EMW, given the dearth of pleasure boating in the area and the absence of whale watching operations. Acoustic pollution. Potentially serious is seismic surveys and military exercises are conducted in the area, although the presence in Egyptian deep waters of Cuvier s beaked whales, the species most vulnerable to noise disturbance, remains to be ascertained. Climate and ecosystem change. Likely to be quite significant in Egyptian Mediterranean waters, due to the major hydrological changes in the Levantine Sea caused by the Aswan Dam, the increasing presence of Lessepsian migrants, and the possible effects of climate change on the Mediterranean marine environment (Anon. 2010). 16

17 5. Areas of special conservation importance 5.1. Benefits and constraints of Marine Protected Areas for marine mammals Marine protected areas (MPAs) can contribute to marine mammal conservation, providing they are appropriately managed, by preserving their habitat and prey, by reducing the risks of mortality in fishing gear, by providing refuge from acoustic pollution and other types of disturbance; in addition, MPAs can contribute to raising awareness, promoting the collection of scientific knowledge and facilitating exchange of information (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2007). In a marine environment such as the Mediterranean, where human impact is highly pervasive, well- managed MPAs can create oases of protection for the animals, thus alleviating human encroachment. Furthermore, MPAs may restore ecosystem functioning and benefit marine food webs by providing shelter to threatened marine species, thereby contributing to the recovery of depleted marine mammal prey (Agardy 1997, Roberts et al. 2001). MPAs provide an ideal framework to conduct robust scientific investigations and ecosystem studies, and to combine them with socio- economic analyses and other management- oriented assessments. MPAs are also amenable to the promotion of respectful nature- watching, which may allow ex- fishermen or part- time fishermen to increase their income and begin to involve them, as well as other stakeholders, in the conservation process. However, there also are constraints to MPA effectiveness, particularly as far as marine mammals are concerned, unless some concerns are addressed. Several marine mammal species are known to make long- range movements, and their presence may vary on a seasonal or annual basis. In these cases, MPA designation based on insufficient knowledge may not be the most effective conservation strategy. Nevertheless, MPAs can certainly help to protect ecologically important portions of these mammals range. The success of MPAs as tools for marine mammal conservation will depend on our ability to match the species critical habitat and/or resources with the boundaries of the areas to be protected. Therefore, to be effective for marine mammal conservation, the design of MPAs should be based on a good understanding of the movements, habits and spatial needs of both the animals and their prey. Another problem with MPAs is that their designation is often cumbersome, and it may take decades to make them a reality. Even when they are established, the challenge of managing them until they are fully functional remains (Togridou et al. 2006, Guidetti et al. 2008). Therefore, formally designated MPAs may not be always the most appropriate tool to ensure the solution of particular anthropogenic threats, as the lengthy process involved in their effective establishment may delay bringing about the timely mitigation that will prevent marine mammal population from declining beyond recovery. For the above reasons, this Action Plan suggests that while the creation of a functional network of MPAs is extremely important, and in some cases the creation of an MPA represents the most appropriate management tool, it is also necessary to envisage ways for applying specific management measures in the short term to solve urgent conservation problems as soon as they are identified. Targeted management measures must be applied immediately to areas identified through research as having special conservation importance for marine mammals, whenever particular anthropogenic pressures may jeopardise the survival of marine mammal population and threaten marine biodiversity, also compromising provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting ecosystem services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005) Possible important areas for marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Many MPAs of different types, sizes and purposes have been established in several Mediterranean countries (Abdulla et al. 2008), including Egypt; most of these include marine mammal habitat within their boundaries. Unfortunately, specific measures for marine mammal conservation are rarely included in these areas management plans. The Sallum MPA in Egypt has the potential of contributing to the conservation of marine mammals in the country, particularly as far as monk seals and coastal dolphins are concerned. 17

18 Other protected areas along the Egyptian Mediterranean coast (Zaranik Protected Area in North of Sinai, Omayed Protected Area in the Northern coast and Ashtum El Gameel Protected Area in Port Said) do not seem to contain suitable marine mammal habitat. However, after more thorough investigations are completed about the ecology (abundance and distribution) of marine mammals in EMW, it is possible that other sites will be identified, currently without the benefit of any designation, that deserve to be specially protected. The main challenge for such areas of potentially high conservation importance is that scarce information exists about the dynamics and exact distribution of local marine mammal populations and the threats that may be affecting them. It is therefore difficult at present to propose specific management actions that may ensure conservation benefits. Such information will hopefully emerge from the accomplishment of Objective 1. Sighting and stranding reports from the EMW are likely to provide useful preliminary insight, which is likely to orient in the identification of critical habitat and to identify the management actions that are more likely to provide conservation benefits. 18

19 6. Capacity building Developing research and monitoring abilities throughout the region is a timely challenge and a high priority as far as marine mammal conservation in Egypt is concerned. Such challenge involves: 1) transmitting knowledge through effective and long- lasting training procedures, and 2) ensuring that such hard- gained knowledge is put to long- term use once the trainees endeavour to apply it. Opportunities to get professional training in marine mammal research techniques and learn about marine mammal conservation and management strategies have increased in recent years. However, only a few local scientists can rely on appropriate training for their professional growth. This prevents the development of sound research programmes and conservation campaigns. Poor access to information is another problem faced by many. Much of the specialized marine mammal literature can be hard to access, as marine mammal libraries are rare or privately held. Also, opportunities for learning are scarce, due for instance to scattered local expertise, limited contacts with other researchers, and the fact that professional marine mammal conferences have never been held in Egypt. Facilities where professional work on marine mammals can be conducted are also scarce, thus weakening the potential of local students and young researchers interested in marine mammals. This Action Plan recognises the need to address two aspects of this issue: a) Institutional capacity can be built in several ways. Creating institutional capacity ensures that the resources invested in individuals are not wasted, by providing them with actual working opportunities, access to information, and a favourable environment in which they can grow professionally. These would involve such things as creating University courses, managing literature collections, opening laboratories and other infrastructure, facilitating access to information, and providing logistic and other support to institutions that may offer positions to deserving individuals. Institutional capacity building concerns inter alia the provision of professional training to public administrators in central or local authorities, bodies in charge of the management of MPAs, research and teaching organisations, and advocacy NGOs. b) Individual capacity building requires a different approach. A formal approach to theoretical education would include seminars, workshops, short- term training courses and university courses on marine mammals. A different, more practical approach may include direct involvement of the trainee through volunteering, assistantships and internships. A combination of the theoretical and practical approaches is probably optimal. An example would be intensive training courses in the field, where lectures involving theory are combined with direct experience at sea collecting data. However, the main problem with individual capacity building is ensuring that once trained, personnel will have the possibility of implementing training- related activities in Egypt. Therefore, there is a strong link between institutional and individual capacity building. There is little point investing in people until the national institutions are able to incorporate and bring to full fruition newly acquired individual abilities. Both aspects involving capacity building action will be targeted within the framework of Objectives 2 and 3. 19

20 7. The Action Plan The three objectives will be met through the implementation of a number of actions to be conducted between 2012 and 2016, listed below. Although this Action Plan is presented as a series of separate actions, these will need to be integrated into comprehensive national management frameworks and programmes. An appropriate body for integrating the actions of this plan into a comprehensive programme could be the Advisory Committee, proposed to be established in Section 7.2, 2.C. The actions are listed in a tabular form in Section 7.5, which also provides greater operational detail and a set of indicators necessary for evaluating the achievements of the Action Plan. In the case of more complex actions, these are subdivided into different components Actions needed to reach Objective 1 Collect and expand knowledge on the status of marine mammal populations and of their environment in the Egyptian Mediterranean, necessary to the implementation of a conservation strategy. There is an acute need for conducting systematic observations to inventory marine mammal populations and identify their habitat along the Egyptian Mediterranean Exclusive Economic Zone, because needed conservation measures to be proposed need to rest on scientific evidence. However, the collection of even minimal data on marine mammal ecology requires significant human and financial resources. While the former can be secured through activities geared to build capacity of salaried personnel (see Objective 2), which may be conducted within the framework of existing international programmes and activities, securing funds for field programmes may be more difficult. With this in mind, only essential research actions are proposed in this Action Plan, which will nevertheless require minimal funding for their implementation. It is hard to envisage the implementation of an Action Plan to conserve a natural entity marine mammal populations without at least a basic knowledge of their distribution, abundance, and main threats. 1A Basic studies of marine mammal ecology Collect basic information about population ecology (abundance, distribution and structure) of marine mammal species present in the EMW through: 1A.1 Line- transect aerial or surface surveys (the latter possibly combining visual and acoustic means of detection) to collect absolute density data and generate cetacean population sizes, habitat prediction based on spatial modelling, and to identify hotspots of cetacean occurrence within the EMW, that deserve the future implementation of conservation 20

21 measures (see Fig. 2 for an example of equal- spaced survey design in EMW). Note: should the funds needed to perform the above surveys be impossible to secure, it could be advisable to organise at least a set of cruises on board of platform of opportunity, as homogenously distributed as possible across the EMW, to collect data on cetacean encounter rates (ER). Nevertheless, the much greater heuristic value provided by campaigns targeting the collection of absolute (as opposed to relative) density data (in addition to the added benefits deriving from capacity building and communication opportunities) fully justifies, in the writer s opinion, the greater organisational and financial commitment implied in such cruises; therefore the highest effort to secure the needed funds for such campaigns is recommended. Considering the high mobility of the species to protect, a commitment should be made to harmonize and coordinate nation- based survey efforts with a wider effort, which can be undertaken within the ACCOBAMS framework across the entire Mediterranean basin. Fig. 2 Example of equal- space survey transect design across the EMW. 1A.2 Longitudinal studies based on photo- ID of selected cetacean populations in restricted locations (e.g., bottlenose dolphins in the Nile Delta). The action envisages initiating studies of population abundance, trends and structure as well as habitat use and movement patterns of marine mammal population units of particular importance, on the basis of the results of Action 1A.1. 1A.3 Establishment of a National Marine Mammal Stranding Network along the entire coastline of the EM. The action involves the regular monitoring of strandings of marine mammals across the area, to detect and investigate the occurrence of the different species, their locations, relative frequency of stranding, and causes of mortality (e.g., from fishing, ship strikes, direct killings). At the moment no information is available on the number of strandings that may occur along the EM coast in one year. If the rate were comparable to that experienced in central and western Mediterranean countries (e.g., Italy), it could be hypothesized that the yearly number of strandings in Egypt might range between 20 and 30, however figures might be significantly lower because cetacean densities in the Levantine Seas may be smaller than in the western Mediterranean due to the lower productivity of the sub- region. This action must be integrated with the involvement of personnel from the veterinary departments of local Universities, to promote investigations of stranding causes, and to provide research material and specimens useful for conservation purposes, to be deposited in appropriate, centralised tissue banks (national or ACCOBAMS). 21

22 1A.4 Monk seal population assessment and monitoring: mapping critical habitat and surveying for potential presence of the species, with particular emphasis on the western portion of the EM coast. 1B Studies of marine mammal threats Collect basic information on existing anthropogenic pressures in the EMW known to potentially impact on marine mammal populations: 1B.1 Fisheries: operational and ecological interactions. Investigate: The occurrence of incidental mortality of marine mammals in fishing gear, through the involvement and cooperation of the fishing communities; The occurrence of fishing gear damage and/or depredation (either real or perceived), possibly triggering intentional kills or harm to marine mammals; The occurrence of intentional killings of marine mammals by fishermen; marine mammal fisheries ecological interactions. Ensure that illegal fishing practices, especially those having a direct negative impact on marine mammals or on marine mammal critical habitat (e.g., the use of dynamite fishing) are prosecuted and the relative legislation is fully enforced. 1B.2 Habitat degradation and loss due to human activities at sea, such as coastal construction, chemical and nutrient pollution, etc. Determine overlap between marine mammal critical habitat identified through actions defined under Action 1A (above), and areas where development (tourism, coastal construction, aquaculture, maritime traffic, etc.) is degrading the conditions of the marine environment with potential or observed effect on marine mammals. Through a recent effort by Dr. Fiorenza Micheli (Stanford University), a model was generated whereby the cumulative impacts are mapped of various pressure factors in the Mediterranean (see The modelled cumulative impact along the shores of the EM is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3 Modelled cumulative impacts of anthropogenic pressures along the Egyptian Mediterranean coast (Micheli 2011). 22