Refractive Development: Main Parts
|
|
- Letitia Sanders
- 5 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Refractive Development: Main Parts Prevalence of refractive errors and changes with age. Factors affecting refractive development. Operational properties of the visiondependent mechanisms that mediate refractive development. How visual signals are transformed into biochemical signals for eye growth. Treatment strategies for slowing myopia progression. Distribution of Refractive Errors (young adult population) from Sorsby, 97 Major differences from random distribution: - more emmetropes than predicted - fewer moderate errors (e.g., -. D) - more high errors (e.g., -. D) i.e., the function is leptokurtotic. theoretical Gaussian distribution Frequency (%) Age - yrs (Kempf et al) Nearsighted Newborns (Cook & Glasscock) Farsighted Ideal Optical Conditions Newborns frequently have large optical errors, however, these errors usually disappear. Refractive Error (D) Changes in Refractive Error with Age Age Norms of Refraction (Slataper, 9) more typical 7 9 Average data are not very predictive of changes on an individual basis before about years. Thereafter, most people experience the same trends. Myopia in Premature Infants Born before weeks &/or birth weights < g; no ROP Age (weeks) Myopia associated with short axial lengths & steep corneas. Recovery primarily due to corneal flattening. Human Infants Mean Edwards, 99 Wood et al., 99 Thompson (97) from Saunders Saunders, 99 Gwiazda et al, 99 Atkinson et al., 99 Emmetropization is the process that guides ocular growth toward the optimal optical state. It occurs very rapidly; most infants develop the ideal refractive error by - months.
2 Emmetropization is very successful. Net Anisometropia From Mayer et al., (n = ) 9% confidence limits (D)..... Howland & Sayles (97) Normal Infants n = cylinders spheres During the period of rapid emmetropization, the degree of anisometropia typically decreases (i.e., isometropization occurs). Cycloplegic refractions in healthy, full-term children to months of age. The key point is that refraction becomes less variable and is relatively constant from about to months.. Number of Patients Prevalence of Anisometropia (Abrahamsson et al., 99) >. D new cases loss of aniso Normal Infants n= Isometropization Anisometropia is frequently transient during early development. Axial Length (mm) Axial Length Development Gordon & Donzis Larsen, males Laren, females Zadnik et al Fledelius Axial Length (mm) Axial Length Development Gordon & Donzis Larsen, males Laren, females Zadnik et al Fledelius Rapid Infantile phase (- yrs) -- axial length increases about - mm. Slower Juvenile phase (- yrs) -- axial length increases about mm. Corneal Power (D) Corneal Development Gordon & Donzis Woodrift Zadnik et al. Corneal Power (D) Corneal Development Gordon & Donzis Woodrift Zadnik et al. Major Optical Changes: ) flatter cornea (- D) ) deeper AC (.D) ) flatter lens (- D) Anterior Chamber Depth Birth AC depth increases from about. mm at birth to about. mm at years (about. D).
3 Zadnik et al., 99 Lens Power (D) Lens Development Gordon & Donzis Zadnik et al. Lens Power (D) Lens Development Gordon & Donzis Zadnik et al. Major Optical Changes: ) flatter cornea (- D) ) deeper AC (.D) ) flatter lens (- D) Changes with Age Early School Years Refractive Error (D) Age Norms of Refraction (Slataper, 9) Axial Length (mm) Age (yrs) From about to 7- years, the mean refractive error is quite stable & the degree of variability is low. Corneal Power (D) Lens Power (D) Refractive Development: Early School Years Refractive Error - Zadnik et al., 99 Corneal Power (D) 7 Cornea Refractive Development: Early School Years Lens Thickness Axial Length (mm) Axial Length Lens Power (D) 9 Lens During early adolescence, the cornea is relatively stable. The slow decrease in lens power is counterbalanced by an increase in axial length. Wong et al., Refractive Development: Early School Years Anterior Chamber Depth Wong et al., Myopia (percent) Prevalence of Myopia in Humans School Years Jackson, 9 Tassman, 9 Age in Years The decrease in mean refractive error between about and years is due primarily to the onset of school myopia in a small proportion of the population.
4 Percent Myopic Myopic Progression Adult Onset Myopia Vitale et al 9 Males Females Youth-Onset or Juvenile-Onset, or School Myopia For many individuals, myopic progression stops in late teenage years associated with the normal cessation of axial growth...9 to 7 yrs 7.7. to yrs... to yrs Age Group.9 to yrs.. to yrs % of myopes become myopic after 7 yrs 97 to to Classifications of Myopia. Annual Rate of Myopic Progression Proportion of Sample Males Females Rate varies considerably between individuals. Average = -. to -. D/yr (before age yrs) Grosvenor, 97 Congenital = present at birth & persists through infancy. Youth-onset = occurs between years and early teens. Early adult-onset = occurs between & years Late adult-onset = occurs after years Myopic Progression (D/year) Seasonal Variations in Myopic Progression Age of Onset vs. Degree of Myopia From Goss, 99 mc/articles/pmc977/bin/i f.jpg Gwiazda et al., Progression rates are slowest during the summer months. The earlier the onset of myopia the higher the rate of progression and the final degree of myopia.
5 Axial Nature of Myopia.. Predictability of Refractive Errors at Age - Years The rate of myopic progression is highly correlated with the rate of axial elongation. Proportion of Sample > >. Refractive Error Distributions for Children at - years who develop: Myopia >. D Emmetropia -.9 to +.99 D Hyperopia >. D >. From Goss, 99 From Hirsch, 9 Refractive Error (D) Changes in Refractive Error with Age Age Norms of Refraction (Slataper, 9) Acquired hyperopia due to: ) presbyopia ) lens continues to flatten ) refractive index of lens cortex increases Lens Development - Mass The crystalline lens continues to grow throughout life. more typical 7 9 Weale, 9 Acquired Hyperopia Changes in Refractive Error with Age Vitreous Chamber Young adult ( yrs) =. mm Mature adult ( yrs) =.7 mm Ooi & Grosvenor, 99 Refractive Error (D) Age Norms of Refraction (Slataper, 9) Decrease in hyperopia due to increase in refractive index of core of crystalline lens. more typical 7 9
6 Percentage of Population Prevalence of Astigmatism (young adult population) Astigmatism is the most common ametropia. The magnitude is, however, usually relatively small. Astigmatism Axis vs Spherical Ametropia Young Adult Population Mandel et al.,.... > Amount of Astigmatism (D) Prevalence of Astigmatism: Infants Marked levels of astigmatism are common in young infants -- due primarily to corneal toricity. Prevalence of Astigmatism (> D) in Human Infants Prevalence (%) Santonastaso, 9 Howland et al., 97 Mohindra et al., 97 Atkinson et al., 9 Fulton et al., 9 Gwiazda et al., 9 Edwards, 99 Saunders, 99. Atkinson et al. 9 Age (weeks) Longitudinal Changes in Astigmatism Almost every infant shows a decrease in astigmatism during early infancy. Early astigmatism may not be very predictive of astigmatism later in life. Axis of Astigmatism: Infants Right eye astigmatism at 9 months of age (n =, Cambridge, UK). W-t-R astigmatism predominates. Atkinson et al. 9 from Ehrlich et al., 997
7 Change in Axis of Astigmatism Change in Corneal Power & Astigmatism W-t-R A-t-R With age the prevalence of W-t-R decreases & there is a concomitant increase in A-t-R. Most of the changes occur after about years of age and occur at a rate of about. D every years. After age years, the cornea gets progressively steeper. The reduction in the radius of curvature is greater for the horizontal meridian. oblique age in decades Bennett & Rabbetts, 99 Bennett & Rabbetts, 99 My Eyelash Distribution of Refractive Errors (young adult population) Major differences from random distribution: - more emmetropes than predicted - fewer moderate errors (e.g., -. D) - more high refractive errors (e.g., -. D) theoretical Gaussian distribution About microns from Sorsby, 97 Frequency Distributions for Individual Ocular Components Since the distribution of refractive errors is leptokurtic, there can not be free association between individual components. Highest correlation is typically found between refractive error and axial length. from Sorsby, 97 Nature of Refractive Errors emmetropes ametropes from Sorsby, 97 Not all emmetropic eyes are alike. Ks = D Lens =..9 D AC =.. mm AL =.. mm Ametropic eyes between - D and + D frequently have individual ocular components that fall within the range for emmetropic populations. With larger ametropias, one component, typically axial length, falls outside the range for emmetropia. 7
8 Twin Factors that influence refractive state Genetic Factors ethnic differences in the prevalence of refractive errors familial inheritance patterns monozygotic twins candidate genes Environmental Factors humans: epidemiological studies of prevalence of myopia lab animals: restricted environments lab animals: altered retinal imagery Prevalence of Myopia in Different Ethnic Groups Prevalence of Myopia (%) Swedish British Israeli Malay Indian Eurasian Chinese Ethnic Category Percent Children Myopic Familial Inheritance Patterns from Zadnik, 99 None One Both If both parents are myopic, the child is - times more likely to be myopic than if neither of the child s parents are myopic. Intrapair Correlations for Refractive Error Monozygotic vs Dizygotic Twins (Dirani et al., ) Monozygotic Twins r =. r =. Dizygotic Twins Myopic Parents Twin Twin Twin B: Refractive Error (D) - Monozygotic Twins (Sorsby et al., 9) Evil twin? Dr. Y. Chino Good twin? Identical twins have very similar refractive errors. Procentage of Sample Concordance of Optical Components (from Sorsby et al., 9) uniovular twins other pairs Not only do twins have identical refractive errors, their eyes have very similar dimensions. Concordance limits: Axial length =. mm corneal & lens power =. D AC depth =. mm lens thickness =. mm total power =.9 D Twin A: Refractive Error (D) Number of Individual Components
9 Myopia and Genetics (peer-reviewed publications per year) Genetic Loci for Myopia 99- Published Papers Locus Location Study Myopia Severity MYP Xq Schwartz et al, to -. D MYP p. Young et al, to - D MYP q-q Young et al, to - D MYP 7q Naiglin et al, Avg = -. D MYP 7q-q Paluru et al, -. to - D Genetic Loci for Myopia to 9 Locus Location Study Myopia Severity Genetic Factors & Myopia Schuman et al., MYP q Stambolian et al, -. D or lower MYP7 p Hammond et al, -. to +7. D MYP q Hammond et al, -. to +7. D MYP9 q Hammond et al, -. to +7. D MYP p Hammond et al, -. to +7. D MYP q-q7 Zhang et al, - to - D MYP q7. Paluru et al, -7. to -7 D MYP Xq-q Zhang et al, -. to - D MYP p Wojcechowski et al, Avg = -. D MYP q. Nallasamy et al, 7 Avg = -7. MYP p.-p. Lam et al, -7. to -. D MYP? q Klein et al, 7 Range of Errors MYP? 7p Klein et al, 7 Range of Errors MYP? q.-. Klein et al, 7 Range of Errors MYP? 7p Ciner et al, Avg = -.7 D MYP? q Andrew et al, - to +.7 D MYP? q.-. Ciner et al, 9 Avg = -.9 D MYP? 9q. Li et al, 9 <-. D MYP? q Solouki et al, 9 Range of Errors MYP? q Hysi et al, 9 Range of Errors Variations in amino acid sequences at MYP (Xq) appear to influence the degree of myopia. Myopia has historically been associated with nearwork. Nearsighted (percent) University Students Clerks Cultured people (actors & musicians) Tailors Skilled workmen (butchers) Farmers and Seamen Heavy Near Work Little Near Work Occupation Tscherning, (Duke-Elder, 97) Nearsighted (percent) The prevalence of myopia is synchronized with the onset of formal schooling. School Years (Jackson, 9; Tassman, 9) Age in Years 9
10 Odds ratio Prevalence of Myopia (%) An Epidemic of Myopia Significant Associations in Myopia Proportion of Myopes (%) Myopia & Intelligence < >7 IQ Score Myopia & Education < 9 > Years of Education Prevalence Rate (%) 9 Lin et al., Taiwanese School Children 99 Average Degree of Myopia (D) 9 Years Years Years Age The prevalence and average degree of myopia is increasing rapidly over time. An Epidemic of Myopia An Epidemic of Myopia National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data from vs 999- Jung et al., Females Males Korean National Health and Nutrition Survey % of young adult males entering military were myopic (n=,) 97-7 Age (yrs) Age (yrs) Vitale et al., 9 The prevalence of myopia is increasing too fast to reflect genetic changes; something in the environment is affecting the pattern of refractive errors. Outdoor activities have a strong protective effect against myopia. Restricted environments promote myopia. Mitchell et al., -. Monkeys in Restricted Environment (from Young, 9) High Moderate Low Low Moderate High outdoor Refractive Error (D) Adolescent Monkeys: - years of age Mean (n=) Mean (n=) Monkeys reared in restricted visual environments develop myopia. Avoids many of the confounding variables in human studies -- in particular self selection. Attributed to excessive accommodation. near-work Multivariable-Adjusted Odds for Myopia -. Time in Restricted Environment (weeks)
11 Anisometropia (D) (treated eye control eye) Insights from Studies of Laboratory Animals Refractive development is regulated by visual feedback associated with the eye s refractive state. Basic Observations: Emmetropization Form-deprivation myopia Recovery from form-deprivation myopia Optically imposed defocus Emmetropization Requires Vision Normal Monkeys Human days Dark-reared Monkeys Guyton et al., 97 Chronic Image Degradation Causes Myopia Monocularly Form-Deprived Monkeys normal eye deprived eye Vitreous Chamber Growth FDM occurs in a wide variety of animals. Marsupialia New World Old World Vitreous Chamber (mm) deprived eye fellow eye Aves Terrestrial vertebrates Tree Shrews Placental mammals Primates Human Carnivora Wiesel & Raviola, 977 Age (months) The potential for a clear retinal image is essential for normal refractive development. Vertebrata Rodentia Lagomorpha Percentage of Cases Form-Deprivation Myopia Form-deprivation Myopia Monkeys Humans 7 Raviola and Wiesel, 99 von Noorden and Crawford, 97 Smith et al., 97 Normal Monkeys Deprived Monkey Eyes "deprived humans" Normal humans Rabin et al. (9) FDM occurs in a wide variety of animals -- including humans-- which suggests that the mechanisms responsible for FDM are probably fundamental to ocular development. The potential for a clear retinal image is essential for normal emmetropization. ays) Recovery from Form-Deprivation Myopia Normal Monkeys - Treatment Period Recovery Period - End of Treatment Vitreous Chamber (mm) Monkey LIS Deprived Eye Non-Treated Eye End of Treatment - treatment period 9
12 Emmetropization is guided by optical defocus. Optically imposed refractive errors produce predictable refractiveerror changes. Positive Treatment Lens Negative Treatment Lens Imposed Myopia: To compensate, the eye must become more hyperopic. - - Lens Compensation in Monkeys +9. D RE vs. Age for Binocularly Lens-Reared Monkeys +. D Expected Ametropia +. D. D -. D -. D Imposed Hyperopia: To compensate, the eye must become more myopic. - Vision-Induced Ametropias Are Axial in Nature. Emmetropization: Effective Operating Range Vitreous Chamber (mm) 9 Negative Lenses Positive Lenses - Lens-Reared Monkeys r =. n = - 9 Vitreous Chamber (mm) Lens Power (D) Chick (Wallman & Wildsoet, 99) Chick (Irving et al., 99) Tree Shrew (Siegwart & Norton, 99) Monkey (Smith et al.) Marmoset (Whatham & Judge, ) Moderate powered treatment lenses produce predictable changes in refractive error in many species.. tment =. ens Power (D) Change in Refractive Error (D) Effective Operating Range for Emmetropization Monkeys vs Humans Monkeys B. Effective Emmetropization Range r ² = Effective Refractive Error (D) Mutti et al. () Humans Large refractive errors produce unpredictable growth possibly these eyes have faulty emmetropization mechanisms. - RE = -. D lens LE = Plano lens Optically Imposed Anisometropia RE = +. D lens LE = Plano lens - RE = Positive lenses LE = Negative lenses Positive Lens Negative Lens Plano Lens Regulation of refractive development is largely independent in the two eyes.
13 Anisometropia (D) Optically Imposed Anisometropia Interocular Differences in Refractive Error Monkeys Treated eye = -. D lens Fellow eye = Plano lens - Humans Philips, Monovision correction Humans and monkeys respond in a similar manner to imposed defocus. Insights from Studies of Laboratory Animals Vision-dependent mechanisms that regulate refractive development are active well into early adult life. Basic Observations: FDM myopia and anisometropic compensation in mature animals. Phenomenon of adult onset myopia and adult progression in humans. Axial Length (mm) Age Effects: Are vision dependent mechanisms only active early in life? Age (human years) Onset of Juvenile Myopia Age (monkey years) Normal Monkeys Gordon & Donzis Larsen, males Laren, females Zadnik et al Fledelius Treated Monkeys Vitreous Chamber (mm) (treated eye - fellow eye).... Late Onset Form Deprivation Vitreous Chamber Depth Age (Human Years) Anisometropia (D) (fellow eye - treated eye) Anisometropia (End of Treatment) 7 Individual Subjects Early Adult Onset Myopia Insights from Studies of Laboratory Animals McBrien & Adams, 997 Adult Onset Adult Progression When the eye is presented with two different focal plans viewed sequentially, refractive development is dominated by the least hyperopic / most myopic focus. Interrupted Lens Compensation Examples of adult onset myopia associated with a change in occupation.
14 Treatment period: onset: days duration: 7 days Temporal Integration Properties of Emmetropization n= n=7 n=7 n= Daily Exposure History Continuous FD hr hr hr Hours of the Light Cycle Form Deprivation Unrestricted Vision Anisometropia (D) (treated eye - fellow eye) 7 n = n = 7 Temporal Integration Properties: Similarities Between Species Refractive Error n = 7 n = months of age Hours of Unrestricted Vision n = Vitreous Chamber (mm) (treated eye - fellow eye) Hours of Unrestricted Vision Brief daily periods of unrestricted vision counterbalance long daily periods of form deprivation n = Vitreous Chamber n = 7 n = 7 n = n = Effects of Brief Periods of Unrestricted Vision on Compensation for Binocular Negative Lenses n= n= Treatment period: onset: days duration: days Daily Exposure History Hours of the Light Cycle - D Lenses Unrestricted Vision - Lens Compensation for Continuous -D Lenses Normal Monkeys Continuous - D Lenses 9 - End of Treatment Averages +. D -. D - Effects of hour of vision through plano lenses on compensation for D lenses. Normal Monkeys -hr Plano Lenses Continuous - D Lenses 9 End of Treatment Averages +. D +. D - -. D - Implications for Nearwork - D continuous Normals hr plano lens D-hrs + D-hrs per day + D-hrs / day Diopter Hours Relative to Controls - D Lenses Unrestricted Vision Hours of the Light Cycle Visual signals that increase axial growth and those that normally reduce axial growth are not weighed equally. To stimulate axial growth, a myopiagenic visual stimulus must be present almost constantly.
15 Insights from Studies of Laboratory Animals When the eye is presented with two different focal plans viewed simultaneously, refractive development is dominated by the least hyperopic / most myopic focus. Dual Power Lenses Effects of Simultaneous Defocus Dual-Focus Lenses Tse et al. 7 Vitreous Chamber (mm) D / plano MKY. Normal Monkeys Right Eye +D/pl Left Eye +D/pl Myopic Defocus vs Unrestricted Vision + D / Plano Lenses Hyperopic Defocus vs Unrestricted Vision - D / Plano Lenses Longitudinal Refractive Error End of Treatment Longitudinal Refractive Error End of Treatment - - Normals + D Full Field +D / Pl Normals -D Full Field -D / Pl Refractive development was dominated by the positivepowered portion of the lens. Refractive development was dominated by the zeropowered portion of the lens. Myopic Defocus vs Unrestricted Vision + D / Plano Lenses + Pl Plano lens ":" ":" ":7" ":" ":" ":" Area Ratio (+:pl) Complete compensation + single vision Even when the positive portion of the lens is. times smaller than the plano portion, the eye develops hyperopia.
Distribution of Refractive Errors (young adult population) Newborns frequently have large optical errors, however, these errors usually disappear.
Distribution of Refractive Errors (young adult population) from Sorsby, 97 Major differences from random distribution: - more emmetropes than predicted - fewer moderate errors (e.g., -. D) - more high
More informationFEATURE REVIEW ON LINE. Prentice Award Lecture 2010: A Case for Peripheral Optical Treatment Strategies for Myopia. Earl L.
1040-5488/11/8809-1029/0 VOL. 88, NO. 9, PP. 1029 1044 OPTOMETRY AND VISION SCIENCE Copyright 2011 American Academy of Optometry FEATURE REVIEW ON LINE Prentice Award Lecture 2010: A Case for Peripheral
More informationForm-deprivation myopia in monkeys is a graded phenomenon
Vision Research 40 (2000) 371 381 www.elsevier.com/locate/visres Form-deprivation myopia in monkeys is a graded phenomenon Earl L. Smith III *, Li-Fang Hung College of Optometry, Uni ersity of Houston,
More informationThis study addressed the question of whether optical defocus
Compensation for Experimentally Induced Hyperopic Anisometropia in Adolescent Monkeys Xingwu Zhong, 1 Jian Ge, 1 Haohui Nie, 1 and Earl L. Smith III 2,3 PURPOSE. Early in life, the optical demand associated
More informationEffects of Photorefractive Keratectomy-Induced Defocus on Emmetropization of Infant Rhesus Monkeys
Effects of Photorefractive Keratectomy-Induced Defocus on Emmetropization of Infant Rhesus Monkeys Xingwu Zhong, Jian Ge, Haohui Nie, Xiaolian Chen, Juan Huang, and Nian Liu PURPOSE. To investigate whether
More informationEvidence-Based Refractive Prescribing for Pediatric Patients
Evidence-Based Refractive Prescribing for Pediatric Patients Graham B. Erickson, OD, FAAO, FCOVD Pacific University College of Optometry Dr. Erickson has no financial interests to disclose Overview Of
More informationMyopia: How it Became a Modern Epidemic
Myopia: How it Became a Modern Epidemic Francesca Philips Maths 89S Duke University 1 st November 2016 1 Myopia Introduction Myopia is the most common ocular disorder with approximately 25% of the world
More informationWhat visual system mechanisms are involved in transforming a visual signal into a biochemical signal for growth?
What visual system mechanisms are involved in transforming a visual signal into a biochemical signal for growth? Efferent Components e.g., accommodation diffuser Afferent Components e.g., blur detector
More informationThe Utility of Three Predictors of Childhood Myopia: a Bayesian Analysis
Pergamon 0042-6989(94)00225-8 Vision Res. Vol. 35, No. 9, pp. 1345-1352, 1995 Copyright 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0042-6989/95 $9.50 + 0.00 The Utility of
More informationThe digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand).
http://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz ResearchSpace@Auckland Copyright Statement The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). This thesis may be consulted by you,
More informationOriginal Article Correlation of axial length and corneal curvature with diopter in eyes of adults with anisometropia
Int J Clin Exp Med 2015;8(8):13639-13643 www.ijcem.com /ISSN:1940-5901/IJCEM0010322 Original Article Correlation of axial length and corneal curvature with diopter in eyes of adults with anisometropia
More informationMyopia is one of the most prevalent human visual
Naturally Occurring Vitreous Chamber Based Myopia in the Labrador Retriever Donald 0. Mutti, 1 ' 2 Karla Zadnik, 2 and Christopher J. Murphy 5 PURPOSE. TO investigate whether myopia is present in a breed
More informationStudies of refractive development, particularly those concerned
A R T I C L E S Effects of Form Deprivation on Peripheral Refractions and Ocular Shape in Infant Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta) Juan Huang, 1,2 Li-Fang Hung, 1,2 Ramkumar Ramamirtham, 1,2,3 Terry L. Blasdel,
More informationThe Adenosine Receptor Antagonist, 7-Methylxanthine, Alters Emmetropizing Responses in Infant Macaques
Anatomy and Pathology/Oncology The Adenosine Receptor Antagonist, 7-Methylxanthine, Alters Emmetropizing Responses in Infant Macaques Li-Fang Hung, 1,2 Baskar Arumugam, 1,2 Lisa Ostrin, 1 Nimesh Patel,
More informationA nimals raised wearing lenses which impose hyperopic
1196 EXTENDED REPORT Monovision slows juvenile myopia progression unilaterally J R Phillips... See end of article for authors affiliations... Correspondence to: Dr J R Phillips, Department of Optometry
More informationControversies in Pediatric Refractive Development Timothy Hug, OD, FAAO
Controversies in Pediatric Refractive Development Timothy Hug, OD, FAAO Please silence all mobile devices and remove items from chairs so others can sit. Unauthorized recording of this session is prohibited
More informationThe prevalence of myopia is increasing worldwide and is
Clinical and Epidemiologic Research Change in Peripheral Refraction over Time in Singapore Chinese Children Chelvin C. A. Sng, 1,2 Xiao-Yu Lin, 3 Gus Gazzard, 4,5 Benjamin Chang, 6 Mohamed Dirani, 7 Laurence
More informationConstant light rearing disrupts compensation to imposed- but not induced-hyperopia and facilitates compensation to imposed myopia in chicks
Vision Research 47 (27) 1855 1868 www.elsevier.com/locate/visres Constant light rearing disrupts compensation to imposed- but not induced-hyperopia and facilitates compensation to imposed myopia in chicks
More informationEMMETROPIZATION: An Overview
EMMETROPIZATION: An Overview KRISTIE YACKLE, O.D. DAVID E. FITZGERALD, O.D. Abstract Emmetropization is the process by which the eye moves from a state of ametropia to emmetropia. Though emmetropization
More informationDiagnosis and Management of Refractive Error in Infants & Young Children A Current Perspective
Diagnosis and Management of Refractive Error in Infants & Young Children A Current Perspective Susan A. Cotter, OD, MS, FAAO SCCO at Marshall B Ketchum University Tawna L. Roberts, OD, PhD, FAAO Akron
More informationRelative Distribution of Refractive Errors: An Audit of Retinoscopic Findings
Original Article Relative Distribution of Errors: An Audit of Retinoscopic Findings Muhammad Zia-ul-Haque Ansari, Abrar Ali, Adnan Afaq, Tabassum Ahmed, Khawaja Sharif-ul-Hassan Pak J Ophthalmol 2007,
More informationThe Change in Ocular Refractive Components After Cycloplegia in Children
The Change in Ocular Refractive Components After Cycloplegia in Children Lei Gao*, Xuying Zhuo*, Alvin K. H. Kwok, Ning Yu*, Lusheng Ma* and Jinghua Wang *Department of Ophthalmology, Yantai Yuhuangding
More informationOrigins of Myopia. Sotiris Plainis, MSc, PhD, FBCLA. Laboratory of Vision and Optics, University of Crete
Origins of Myopia Sotiris Plainis, MSc, PhD, FBCLA Laboratory of Vision and Optics, University of Crete Financial disclosure: Co-owner of contact-lenses.gr Emmetropization and eye growth Emmetropization
More informationMasters Thesis. Andrew Glen Noble. Graduate Program in Vision Science. The Ohio State University. Master s Examination Committee:
The Repeatability of Peripheral Axial Length Measurements Masters Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
More informationOrthokeratology for Controlling Myopia: Clinical Experiences
Article Date: 5/1/2010 ORTHO-K AND MYOPIA CONTROL Orthokeratology for Controlling Myopia: Clinical Experiences Two practitioners observe results similar to that in the literature for controlling myopia
More informationRefractive development in children with Down s syndrome: a population based, longitudinal study
Department of Ophthalmology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway O H Haugen G Høvding Vestlund Habilitation Resource Center I Lundström Correspondence to: Olav H Haugen, Department of Ophthalmology,
More informationCongress, British Society for Refractive Surgery, Royal College of Physicians, London,
1 Review Article Title: Myopia: precedents for research in the 21 st Century Running Head: Myopia Research Review Bernard Gilmartin PhD; FCOptom Professor Bernard Gilmartin Ophthalmic and Physiological
More informationImplantation of an intraocular lens (IOL) in the eyes of select. Biometry Data from Caucasian and African-American Cataractous Pediatric Eyes
Biometry Data from Caucasian and African-American Cataractous Pediatric Eyes Rupal H. Trivedi and M. Edward Wilson PURPOSE. To report the biometry data of pediatric cataractous eyes (randomly selected
More informationIssue 15 The following key clinical peer reviewed journals will be reviewed: MONTHLY RESEARCH UPDATE 151(3) American Journal of Ophthalmology 129(5)
Welcome to Bausch and Lomb s monthly research update. With our background in clinical ophthalmic research, mainly of the anterior eye, Bausch and Lomb have asked us to produce an independent report of
More informationHow genetic is school myopia?
Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 24 (2005) 1 38 www.elsevier.com/locate/prer How genetic is school myopia? Ian Morgan a,, Kathryn Rose b a Visual Sciences Group, Research School of Biological Sciences
More informationThe role of bright light as a protective mechanism against the development of form-deprivation myopia in chickens
The role of bright light as a protective mechanism against the development of form-deprivation myopia in chickens Cindy Karouta Bachelor of Applied Science in Human Biology Centre for Research in Therapeutic
More informationFacilitation of Amblyopia Management by Laser In situ Keratomileusis in Children with Myopic Anisometropia
Facilitation of Amblyopia Management by Laser In situ Keratomileusis in Children with Myopic Anisometropia Athens 2018 Amblyopia Amblyopia is a decrease in visual acuity in one eye due to abnormal visual
More informationWhen & how to Rx glasses in children
When & how to Rx glasses in children Nikos Kozeis MD, PhD, FEBO, MRCOphth Consultant Pediatric Ophthalmologist Thessaloniki, Greece The menu of the talk When & How should we Rx glasses? * We ll discuss
More informationMyopia Control from Evidence to Implementation
Myopia Control from Evidence to Implementation Mark A. Bullimore, MCOptom, PhD, FAAO Earl Smith III, OD, PhD, FAAO Alan N. Glazier, OD Please silence all mobile devices and remove items from chairs so
More informationResearch Article Association of Birth Parameters with Refractive Status in a Sample of Caucasian Children Aged 4 17 Years
Ophthalmology Volume 2015, Article ID 635682, 5 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/635682 Research Article Association of Birth Parameters with Refractive Status in a Sample of Caucasian Children Aged
More informationRefractive and Structural Measures of Lid-Suture Myopia in Tree Shrew
Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, Vol. 30, No. 10, October 1989 Copyright Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology Refractive and Structural Measures of Lid-Suture Myopia in Tree
More informationOcular Biometric Measurements In Emmetropic And Myopic Malaysian Children - A Population-Based Study
ORIGINAL ARTICLE Ocular Biometric Measurements In Emmetropic And Myopic Malaysian Children - A Population-Based Study Azura Ramlee, MS Ophthalmology, Goh Pik Pin, MS Ophthalmology, Clinical Research Centre,
More informationLens and Cataract Surgery Update 2008
efocus Innovation. Leadership. Passion for Perfection PACIFIC V I S I O N I N S T I T U T E Life in Focus Issue 029 415.922.9500 --- www.pacificvision.org December 2008 Lens and Cataract Surgery Update
More informationCycloplegic and Noncycloplegic Refractions of Chinese Neonatal Infants
Visual Psychophysics and Physiological Optics Cycloplegic and Noncycloplegic Refractions of Chinese Neonatal Infants Jie Chen, 1 Ailan Xie, 2 Lijie Hou, 1 Yanfeng Su, 1 Fan Lu, 1 and Frank Thorn 1,3 From
More informationORIGINAL ARTICLE. Peripheral Refraction and Retinal Contour in Stable and Progressive Myopia
1040-5488/13/9001-0009/0 VOL. 90, NO. 1, PP. 9Y15 OPTOMETRY AND VISION SCIENCE Copyright * 2013 American Academy of Optometry ORIGINAL ARTICLE Peripheral Refraction and Retinal Contour in Stable and Progressive
More informationIMPLANTATION OF AN INTRAOCUlar
CLINICAL SCIENCES Keratometry in Pediatric Eyes With Cataract Rupal H. Trivedi, MD, MSCR; M. Edward Wilson, MD Objectives: To report the keratometry data of pediatric cataractous eyes (randomly selected
More informationMyopia: Professor Chris Hammond St Thomas Hospital, London Dept Twin Research & Genetic Epidemiology
Myopia: Cause and Cure Professor Chris Hammond St Thomas Hospital, London Dept Twin Research & Genetic Epidemiology www.twinsuk.ac.uk Common! Cost Complications Why study myopia? Retinal detachment Myopic
More informationWhat is myopia? What is myopia? (2) Management of Myopia. Presented by the Optometric Extension Program Foundation (OEPF)
Management of Myopia Presented by the Optometric Extension Program Foundation (OEPF) Paul Harris, OD, Robert Hohendorf, OD, Robin Lewis, OD What is myopia? The refractive condition of the eye represented
More informationRecent decades have seen a rapid rise in the
LIGHT EXPOSURE AND CHILDHOOD MYOPIA There is evidence in many countries globally that the prevalence of myopia is on the rise. Advances in measurement technology now allow many environmental factors potentially
More informationPhysical and Refractive Characteristics of the Eye at Birth and During Infancy
described.' Chapter 3 This chapter is taken from: Isenberg, S. (d.). (1989). The eye in infancy. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers. Physical and Refractive Characteristics of the Eye at Birth and During
More informationThe effectiveness of progressive addition lenses on the progression of myopia in Chinese children
Ophthal. Physiol. Opt. 2009 29: 41 48 The effectiveness of progressive addition lenses on the progression of myopia in Chinese children Zhikuan Yang, Weizhong Lan, Jian Ge, Wen Liu, Xiang Chen, Linxin
More informationClinical Approach To Refractive Errors. Dr. Faizur Rahman Associate Professor Peshawar Medical College
Clinical Approach To Refractive Errors Dr. Faizur Rahman Associate Professor Peshawar Medical College Learning objectives By the end of this lecture the students would be able to; Correlate optics with
More informationSection 4. Animal Models and the Biological Basis of Myopia
Section 4 Animal Models and the Biological Basis of Myopia b846_chapter-4.1.qxd 4/8/2010 2:01 AM Page 239 4.1 The Relevance of Studies in Chicks for Understanding Myopia in Humans Josh Wallman*, and Debora
More informationThe progression of corrected myopia
Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol (2015) 253:1273 1277 DOI 10.1007/s00417-015-2991-5 BASIC SCIENCE The progression of corrected myopia Antonio Medina 1,2 Received: 23 December 2014 /Revised: 4 March 2015
More informationChristopher Wolfe, OD, FAAO, Dipl. ABO
Christopher Wolfe, OD, FAAO, Dipl. ABO Myopia Defined As we know myopia occurs when light from infinity converges to a point in front of the retina. This can occur from 2 main situations: The refractive
More informationBilateral Refractive Amblyopia Treatment Study
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Bilateral Refractive Amblyopia Treatment Study 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 May 24, 2004 Version 1.1 ATS7 Protocol 5-24-04.doc 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
More informationDevelopment of Ocular Refraction: Lessons from Animal Experiments
Development of Ocular Refraction: Lessons from Animal Experiments 1 Frank Schaeffel, Howard C. Howland Core Messages There is overwhelming evidence in both animal models and humans that refractive development
More informationAcademic achievement, close up work parameters, and myopia in Singapore military conscripts
Br J Ophthalmol 2001;85:855 860 855 Department of Community, Occupational and Family Medicine, National University of Singapore, 16 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Republic of Singapore S-M Saw K-S Chia
More informationHigher Order Aberration and Astigmatism in Children with Hyperopic Amblyopia
pissn: 1011-8942 eissn: 2092-9382 Korean J Ophthalmol 2016;30(1):53-59 http://dx.doi.org/10.3341/kjo.2016.30.1.53 Order Aberration and Astigmatism in Children with Hyperopic Amblyopia Original Article
More informationThe relation between BMI & Corneal Astigmatism. Done by : Opto. Ihsan Hmaid Opto. Asmaa Yaseen Dr. Amer Abu Imara.
The relation between BMI & Corneal Astigmatism Done by : Opto. Ihsan Hmaid Opto. Asmaa Yaseen Dr. Amer Abu Imara. Abstract Eighty people were recruited for studying the relation between their body mass
More informationParaxial Schematic Eye Models for 7- and 14-Year-Old Chinese Children
Anatomy and Pathology/Oncology Paraxial Schematic Eye Models for 7- and 14-Year-Old Chinese Children Shi-Ming Li, 1 Ningli Wang, 1 Yuehua Zhou, 1 Si-Yuan Li, 1 Meng-Tian Kang, 1 Luo-Ru Liu, 2 He Li, 2
More informationMARCH Vision Care. Michigan Specific Information. Table of Contents
This document contains information specific to the State of Michigan. Please refer to the Provider Reference Guide for general information regarding plan administration. Table of Contents 1.1 Covered s
More informationEye Elongation during Accommodation in Humans: Differences between Emmetropes and Myopes
Eye Elongation during Accommodation in Humans: Differences between Emmetropes and Myopes Wolfgang Drexler, 1 Oliver Findl, 2 Leopold Schmetterer, 13 Christoph K Hitzenberger, 1 and Adolf F. Fercher 1 PURPOSE.
More informationMyopia Control. Financial Disclosures. Prevalence of Myopia 3/31/2019. Importance of Myopia Control. Myopia Control Treatment Options
Financial Disclosures Myopia Control None Katherine Bickle, OD MS FAAO March 31, 2019 Prevalence of Myopia Importance of Myopia Control 42% of the United States population is myopic and 25% of children
More informationOriginal Article Refractive error among urban preschool children in Xuzhou, China
Int J Clin Exp Pathol 2014;7(12):8922-8928 www.ijcep.com /ISSN:1936-2625/IJCEP0004094 Original Article Refractive error among urban preschool children in Xuzhou, China Xiaojuan Wang 1,2, Dan Liu 1,2, Ruifang
More informationA metropia has been noted to be a common finding in
484 EXTENDED REPORT Retinal dysfunction and refractive errors: an electrophysiological study of children D I Flitcroft, G G W Adams, A G Robson, G E Holder... See end of article for authors affiliations...
More informationIntroduction Chapter 1. Chapter 1. Introduction - 1 -
Chapter 1. Introduction - 1 - - 2 - The cornea and the lens of the eye project the images of the external world onto the retina. For adequate visual perception, this image should be focused on the photoreceptor
More informationRelationship between Refractive Errors and Ocular Biometry Components in Carpet Weavers
Relationship between Refractive Errors and Ocular Biometry Components in Carpet Weavers AbbasAli Yekta, PhD 1 Akbar Fotouhi, MD, PhD 2 Hassan Hashemi, MD 3,4 Hadi Ostadi Moghaddam, PhD 1 Javad Heravian,
More informationThe prevalence of myopia has been estimated at roughly
Parental History of Myopia, Sports and Outdoor Activities, and Future Myopia Lisa A. Jones, 1 Loraine T. Sinnott, 1 Donald O. Mutti, 1 Gladys L. Mitchell, 1 Melvin L. Moeschberger, 2 and Karla Zadnik 1
More informationMyopia is a common ocular disorder, with an estimated
Clinical and Epidemiologic Research Myopia Stabilization and Associated Factors Among Participants in the Correction of Myopia Evaluation Trial (COMET) The COMET Group Department of Preventive Medicine,
More informationOPTOMETRY INVITED REVIEW. The cause(s) of myopia and the efforts that have been made to prevent it
C L I N I C A L A N D E X P E R I M E N T A L OPTOMETRY INVITED REVIEW The cause(s) of myopia and the efforts that have been made to prevent it Clin Exp Optom 2012; 95: 572 582 Jacob Sivak LScO PhD OD
More informationEffect of Dual-Focus Soft Contact Lens Wear on Axial Myopia Progression in Children
Effect of Dual-Focus Soft Contact Lens Wear on Axial Myopia Progression in Children Nicola S. Anstice, BOptom, PhD, John R. Phillips, MCOptom, PhD Purpose: To test the efficacy of an experimental Dual-Focus
More informationJuvenile myopia progression, risk factors and interventions
Saudi Journal of Ophthalmology (2012) 26, 293 297 Pediatric Ophthalmology Update Juvenile myopia progression, risk factors and interventions Elliott H. Myrowitz, OD, MPH Abstract The development and progression
More informationIOL Power Calculation for Children
1 IOL Power Calculation for Children Rupal H. Trivedi, MD MSCR M. Edward Wilson, MD The authors have no financial interest in the subject matter of this presentation. Intraocular lens (IOL) implantation
More informationOf all the issues surrounding myopia in children, there is. Parental Myopia, Near Work, School Achievement, and Children s Refractive Error
Parental Myopia, Near Work, School Achievement, and Children s Refractive Error Donald O. Mutti, 1 G. Lynn Mitchell, 1 Melvin L. Moeschberger, 2 Lisa A. Jones, 1 and Karla Zadnik 1,2 PURPOSE. To quantify
More informationMiSight 1 day - Live Webinar Q&A
What age does the child stop needing treatment? Our current published research tracks children up to 15 years of age and the data shows that myopia is still progressing in both MiSight and single vision
More informationEpidemiology of Myopia
Epidemiologic Reviews Copyright 1996 by The Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health All rights reserved Vol. 18, No. 2 Printed in U.S.A. Epidemiology of Myopia Seang-Mei Saw, 1 Joanne
More informationOpposite Effects of Glucagon and Insulin on Compensation for Spectacle Lenses in Chicks
Opposite Effects of Glucagon and Insulin on Compensation for Spectacle Lenses in Chicks Xiaoying Zhu and Josh Wallman From the Department of Biology, City College, CUNY, New York, New York. Supported by
More informationClinical Pearls: Infant vision examination Deborah Orel-Bixler, PhD, OD University of California, Berkeley School of Optometry
Clinical Pearls: Infant vision examination Deborah Orel-Bixler, PhD, OD University of California, Berkeley School of Optometry Recommended ages for examinations Recommended populations Recommendations
More informationClinical experience of 9,000 small aperture Inlays for presbyopia correction
Clinical experience of 9,000 small aperture Inlays for presbyopia correction Minoru Tomita, MD, PhD Shinagawa LASIK Center, Tokyo, Japan September 7 th, 2012, ISOP meeting in Tokyo, JAPAN 1,060,666 Femto
More informationHumans and some other animals, such as chickens, guinea
Visual Neuroscience The Effect of Temporal and Spatial Stimuli on the Refractive Status of Guinea Pigs Following Natural Emmetropization Zhina Zhi, 1 3 Miaozhen Pan, 1 3 Ruozhong Xie, 1,2 Shibo Xiong,
More informationScreening for refractive errors at age 1
Screening for refractive errors at age 1 a pilot study British Journal of Ophthalmology, 1979, 63, 243-250 year: R. M. INGRAM, M. J. TRAYNAR, C. WALKER, AND J. M. WILSON From the Kettering and District
More informationPresbyMax Outcomes in Myopia, Hyperopia, Emmetropia and Patients post Lasik
PresbyMax Outcomes in Myopia, Hyperopia, Emmetropia and Patients post Lasik SCHWIND eye-tech-solutions Lunch Symposium Prof. Jorge L. Alió MD, PhD. UNIVERSIDAD MIGUEL HERNÁNDEZ VISSUM INSTITUTO OFTALMOLÓGICO
More informationORIGINAL ARTICLE. Ciliary Muscle Thickness in Anisometropia. Key Words: myopia, ciliary muscle, refractive error, eye growth, anisometropia, hyperopia
1040-5488/13/9011-1312/0 VOL. 90, NO. 11, PP. 1312Y1320 OPTOMETRY AND VISION SCIENCE Copyright * 2013 American Academy of Optometry ORIGINAL ARTICLE Ciliary Muscle Thickness in Anisometropia Mallory K.
More informationMyopia. As a practice that emphasizes. Slowing. Myopia Control
Slowing Myopia Progression in Children Although you can t cure myopia, there are an increasing number of promising treatment options you can use to curtail it. By David Kading, O.D., and Amber Mayberry
More informationThe importance of genes and environment for ocular refraction and its determiners: a population based study among year old twins
147 Department of Ophthalmology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, 5 C, Denmark N Lyhne K Sjølie K O Kyvik Green Correspondence to: Niels Lyhne n_lyhne@hotmail.com ccepted for publication 23 May 1 The
More informationRefractive errors (myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism) are complex heterogeneous disorders
SPECIAL ARTICLE Complex Trait Genetics of Refractive Error Terri L. Young, MD; Ravikanth Metlapally, BS(Opt), PhD; Amanda E. Shay, MS Refractive errors (myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism) are complex
More informationPearls for Examining and Prescribing for Preschool Children Refractive Decisions Key Questions to Guide Us:
1 2 Pearls for Examining and Prescribing for Preschool Children J.P. Lowery, OD, MEd, FAAO Professor, Chief of Pediatrics loweryj@pacificu.edu Pacific University College of Optometry Refractive Decisions
More informationBilateral Microphthalmos Associated with Papillomacular Fold, Severe Hyperopia and Steep Cornea
Bilateral Microphthalmos Associated with Papillomacular Fold, Severe Hyperopia and Steep Cornea Mojtaba Abrishami, MD 1 Alireza Maleki, MD 2 Ali Hamidian-Shoormasti, MD 3 Mostafa Abrishami, MD 4 Abstract
More informationORIGINAL ARTICLE. Impact of Pupil Diameter on Axial Growth in Orthokeratology
1040-5488/12/8911-1636/0 VOL. 89, NO. 11, PP. 1636Y1640 OPTOMETRY AND VISION SCIENCE Copyright * 2012 American Academy of Optometry ORIGINAL ARTICLE Impact of Pupil Diameter on Axial Growth in Orthokeratology
More informationInternational Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 8, Issue 12, December ISSN
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 8, Issue 12, December-2017 1496 Overview of available and effective interventions for myopia control Abdullatif Obaid Altowairqi, Naseem
More informationFactors Influencing the Prevalence of Amblyopia in Children with Anisometropia
pissn: 1011-8942 eissn: 2092-9382 Korean J Ophthalmol 2010;24(4):225-229 DOI: 10.3341/kjo.2010.24.4.225 Factors Influencing the Prevalence of Amblyopia in Children with Anisometropia Original Article Chong
More informationIndicators for Prescribing Spectacles in Normal Preschool Children. The author has no financial interest in any optical product or company.
Indicators for Prescribing Spectacles in Normal Preschool Children Sean P. Donahue, M.D., Ph.D. Vanderbilt University Medical Center Nashville, Tennessee Kaiser Symposium June 2008 The author has no financial
More informationRole of light emitted by incandescent or fluorescent lamps in the development of myopia and astigmatism
Med Sci Monit, 2004; 10(4): CR168-171 PMID: 15039648 WWW.MEDSCIMONIT.COM Clinical Research Received: 2003.04.08 Accepted: 2003.10.08 Published: 2004.04.01 Authors Contribution: A Study Design B Data Collection
More informationPrevalence, Incidence and Progression of Myopia in Singaporean Adolescents. Adeola Phebean Awodele. Duke Global Health Institute Duke University
Prevalence, Incidence and Progression of Myopia in Singaporean Adolescents by Adeola Phebean Awodele Duke Global Health Institute Duke University Approved: Clements, Dennis, Supervisor Saw, Seang Mei Maselko,
More informationShedding Light on Pediatric Cataracts. Kimberly G. Yen, MD Associate Professor of Ophthalmology Texas Children s Hospital
Shedding Light on Pediatric Cataracts Kimberly G. Yen, MD Associate Professor of Ophthalmology Texas Children s Hospital A newborn infant presents with bilateral white cataracts. What is the best age to
More informationMyopia Control An Update
Lyndon Jones PhD, DSc, FCAHS, FCOptom, FAAO Financial Disclosures Myopia Control An Update Lyndon Jones PhD DSc FCAHS FCOptom FAAO Over the past three years, members of CORE have received research funding
More informationVision Care for Connecticut Children
Vision Care for Connecticut Children EXECUTIVE SUMMARY November 2003 Prepared by: Judith Solomon, JD Mary Alice Lee, PhD Children s Health Council With funding from: Children s Fund of Connecticut, Inc.
More informationDTIC ELECTE! SEP
~D~LL Myopia Prevalence and Progression DTIC ELECTE! SEP 19 1989 C 'l A 9,3 /5i MYOPIA: PREVALENCE AND PROGRESSION Working Group on Myopia Prevalence and Progression Committee on Vision Commission on Behavioral
More informationEye Movements, Strabismus, Amblyopia and Neuro-Ophthalmology
Eye Movements, Strabismus, Amblyopia and Neuro-Ophthalmology Longitudinal Development of Refractive Error in Children With Accommodative Esotropia: Onset, Amblyopia, and Anisometropia Jingyun Wang, 1,2
More informationChick Eyes Under Cycloplegia Compensate for Spectacle Lenses Despite Six-Hydroxy Dopamine Treatment
Chick Eyes Under Cycloplegia Compensate for Spectacle Lenses Despite Six-Hydroxy Dopamine Treatment Hartmut N. Schwahn* and Frank Schaeffetf Purpose. To test whether eye growth changes produced by spectacle
More informationAmblyopia Definition 9/25/2017. Strabismic Amblyopia. Amblyopia 101: How to use Current Amblyopia Research in Clinical Practice
Amblyopia 101: How to use Current Amblyopia Research in Clinical Practice Valerie M. Kattouf O.D. Chief, Pediatric/Binocular Vision Service FAAO, FCOVD Illinois College of Optometry Associate Professor
More informationVisual Impairment & Eye Health in Children. Susan Cotter, OD, MS So CA College of Optometry Marshall B Ketchum University Fullerton, CA
Visual Impairment & Eye Health in Children Susan Cotter, OD, MS So CA College of Optometry Marshall B Ketchum University Fullerton, CA Consequences of Childhood VI Social Emotional Physical Educational
More informationAuthor: Ida Lucy Iacobucci, 2015
Author: Ida Lucy Iacobucci, 2015 License: Unless otherwise noted, this material is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-Share Alike 4.0 License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
More information