Howard Abadinsky. St. John's University THOMSON + WADSWORTH. Australia Canada Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdon United States

Transcription

1 AN FIFTH I N T R O D U C T I O N EDITION Howard Abadinsky St. John's University THOMSON + WADSWORTH Australia Canada Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdon United States

2 Preface xv c H A p T E R 1 An I ntroduction to Drug Abuse 1 Drugs Reaching a Definition 4 Drug Abuse and Addiction 4 The Drug Use Continuum 5 Addiction 6 Definition Determines Response 7 Drugs of Abuse 7 Depressants 7 Stimulants 8 Hallucinogens 8 Estimating the Extent of the Drug Problem 8 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse 9 Monitoring the Future 9 Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) 10 Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) 11 National Narcotics Intelligence Estimates 12 Retail Price/Purity 12 Drug Use: How Many, How Much? 12 What Is the Connection Between Drugs and Crime? 14 Research on Adolescents 15 Research on Adults 16 Drugs and Violence 19 SUMMARY 20 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 20 REVIEW QUESTIONS 21

3 vi Contents CHAPTER 2 Drug Use and Legislation: A History 22 Alcohol and the Temperance Movement 23 Political and Business Support for Prohibition 23 National Prohibition 24 Opium: A Long History 26 The Opium Derivatives: Morphine and Heroin 28 China and the Opium Wars 29 The "Chinese Problem" and the American Response 31 Twentieth-Century Efforts and Legislation 33 The Pure Food and Drug Act 33 China and the International Opium Conference 34 The Harrison Act 36 The Uniform Drug Act 40 Cocaine: From Coca Leaf to Crack 42 Nineteenth-Century Use of Cocaine 43 Cocaine in the Twentieth Century 43 Marijuana: From Immigrants to the Counterculture 45 Early Marijuana Legislation and Literature 46 Counterculture Use and Changing Laws 47 Amphetamines:Speedandlce 49 Barbiturates 50 Tranquilizers and Sedatives 51 Hallucinogens 51 Government Action After World War II 53 A Turn Toward Treatment 54 Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of The Drug Scare of the 1980s 57 Drug Abuse in the 1990s and Early 2000s 58 SUMMARY 59 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 60 REVIEW QUESTIONS 60 CHAPTER 3 Drugs and the Nervous System 62 Neurological Theories of Drug Abuse 62 The Disease Model 63 Arousal Theory 64 Genetic Predisposition 64

4 vii Limitations in the Neurological Study of Drug Abuse 65 PolydrugUse 65 Psychoactive Substances and the Central Nervous System 67 The Brain 67 Neurons 68 Neurotransmitters 70 Receptor Sites 72 Terms Describing Drug Abuse 73 Drug Ingestion 74 Half-Life 74 Tolerance 75 Drug Cues and Sexual Dysfunction 76 SUMMARY 77 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 77 REVIEW QUESTIONS 77 CHAPTER 4 Depressants 79 Endorphins 79 Stress and Addiction 81 Heroin 82 Effects of Heroin 86 Tolerance for Heroin 88 Heroin Withdrawal 89 Medical Use of Heroin 89 Dangers of Heroin Use 90 Barbiturates 91 Effects of Barbiturates 92 ' Barbiturate Tolerance and Withdrawal 92 Medical Use of Barbiturates 94 Dangers of Barbiturate Use 94 Benzodiazepines 94 Effects of Tranquilizers 95 Medical Use of Benzodiazepines 95 Benzodiazepine Tolerance and Withdrawal 95 Dangers of Tranquilizer Use 96 Methaqualone 97

5 viii Contents Alcohol 97 Effects of Alcohol 99 Alcohol Tolerance and Withdrawal 104 Dangers of Alcohol Use 105 Inhalants 106 Effects of Inhalants and Solvents 107 Inhalant Tolerance and Withdrawal 107 Dangers of Inhalant Use 108 Analogs and Designer Drugs 108 SUMMARY 110 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 110 REVIEW QUESTIONS 110 CHAPTER 5 Stimulants 112 Cocaine 113 Effects of Cocaine 114 Coca Paste and Cocaine Combinations 118 Crack 119 Cocaine Tolerance 121 Cocaine Withdrawal 121 Medical Use of Cocaine 122 Dangers of Cocaine Use 123 Amphetamines 126 Effects of Amphetamines 128 Methamphetamine Tolerance and Withdrawal 130 Medical Use of Amphetamines 131 Dangers of Methamphetamine Use 132 Nicotine 134 Effects of Nicotine 135 Nicotine Tolerance and Withdrawal 137 Dangers of Nicotine Use 138 Herbal Stimulants 140 Caffeine 141 SUMMARY 141 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 141 REVIEW QUESTIONS 142

6 ix CHAPTER 6 Hallucinogens, Club Drugs, and Marijuana 143 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) 144 Effects of LSD 145 LSD Tolerance and Withdrawal 146 Dangers of LSD Use 146 Phencyclidine (PCP) 148 Effects of PCP 149 PCP Tolerance and Withdrawal 150 Dangers of PCP Use 150 Mushrooms and Cactus 151 Ecstasy 153 Effects of Ecstasy 154 Ecstasy Tolerance and Withdrawal 155 Dangers of MDMA 155 Ketamine 158 Rohypnol 158 GHBandGBL 159 GHB Withdrawal 160 Cannabis 160 Effects of Cannabis 163 Marijuana Tolerance and Withdrawal 165 Dangers of Marijuana Use 165 SUMMARY 165 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 166 REVIEW QUESTIONS 166 CHAPTER 7 The Sociology of Drug Abuse 167 Sociological Theory 167 Studying the Stages of Drug Addiction 170 Alcohol 170 Heroin and Cocaine 171 Anomie 173 Response to Anomie 174 Problems with the Theory 175 The Adaptive Model 176 Differential Association 177

7 Social Control Theory 179 Subcultures/Cultural Deviance Theory 180 Symbolic Interactionism/Labeling 183 SUMMARY 185 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 185 REVIEW QUESTIONS 185 CHAPTER 8 The Psychology of Drug Abuse 186 Psychology and Personality 186 Psychoanalytic Theory and Drug Abuse 187 Stages of Psychological Development 188 Divisions of the Psyche 191 Drug Use and Adolescence 193 Behaviorism/Learning Theory 196 Operant Conditioning 196 Behavior Modification 198 Cognitive Learning Theory 199 A Psychosociological Dimension 200 SUMMARY 201 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 201 REVIEW QUESTIONS 202 CHAPTER 9 Drug Abuse Treatment 203 The Cure Industry 204 Chemical Treatments 205 Opioid Antagonists 205 Chemicals for Detoxification 208 Opioid Agonists 209 Chemical Responses to Cocaine Abuse 214 CRF Antagonists 215 Psychological Treatments 215 A Psychoanalytic Approach 216 Behavior Modification 218 Group Treatment 222

8 xi Drug Treatment Programs 223 Treatment Programs in the Criminal Justice System 226 Drug Courts 228 Treatment Alternative to Street Crime (TASC) 229 Therapeutic Community 230 Chemical Dependency (CD) Programs 234 Alcoholics Anonymous 235 The AA Program 236 AA Organization 237 The Minnesota (12-Step) Model 239 AA Alternatives 239 Evaluating Treatment Effectiveness 240 Difficulties Measuring Effectiveness 240 Measuring AA/12-Step Effectiveness 242 Measuring Other Chemical Dependency Programs 243 SUMMARY 244 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 244 REVIEW QUESTIONS 245 CHAPTER 10 Drug Abuse Prevention 246 Models for Prevention 246 Information Model 248 Affective Model 251 Social Influence Model 252 Sample Programs 252 Project D.A.R.E. 252 Reconnecting Youth 253 Preparing for the Drug-Free Years (PDFY) 254 Strengthening Families Program 255 Prevention Research 257 Technical Problems and Criticisms 259 SUMMARY 260 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 261 REVIEW QUESTIONS 261

9 xii Contents CHAPTER 11 The Business of Drugs 262 International Drug Trafficking 263 Colombia 264 Mexico 272 The Golden Triangle 276 The Golden Crescent 281 Nigeria 284 Domestic Drug Trafficking 285 Dominicans 286 Black Drug Organizations 288 Street-Level Drug Business 289 Domestic Production of Marijuana, Methamphetamine, and Other Drugs 293 Money Laundering 295 Currency Exchanges and Smurfs 296 SUMMARY 297 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 298 REVIEW QUESTIONS 298 CHAPTER 12 Drug Laws and Law Enforcement 299 Constitutional Constraints 299 Conceptual Models of Criminal Justice 300 The Fourth Amendment and the Exclusionary Rule 301 Jurisdictional Limitations 302 Domestic Branches and Levels 302 International Efforts 303 Corruption 304 Exposure to Temptation 305 Informants 306 Statutes and Legal Requirements 309 Conspiracy 310 Tax Violations 313 Money Laundering Control Act 314 Seizure and Forfeiture of Assets 315 Grand Jury 317 Law Enforcement Agencies 317 Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) 318 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) 321

10 xiii Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) 322 Internal Revenue Service (IRS) 322 Marshals Service 322 Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) 323 Coast Guard 323 Customs Service 324 The Military 325 Postal Inspection Service 329 Strike/Task Forces 329 INTERPOL 329 Street-Level Law Enforcement 330 Issues in Drug-Law Enforcement 332 SUMMARY 334 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 335 REVIEW QUESTIONS 335 CHAPTER 13 Drug Abuse Policy 337 Incongruities Between Facts and Policies 338 Supply Reduction Through Criminal Sanction 340 Overflowing Prisons 341 Would Changing the Penalties Help? 344 Centralize Federal Drug-Law Enforcement? 345 Enforcement Results 347 Conclusion 348 Supply Reduction by Controlling Drugs at Their Source 349 The"Balloon Effecf'and Human Rights Violations 349 Economic Importance of the Coca Crop in Peru and Bolivia 350 Crop Eradication or Substitution 350 Drug Enforcement and Foreign Policy 353 Demand Reduction by Drug Testing 353 Case Law Results 354 Drug Testing Process 355 Testing Problems 357 Demand Reduction by Criminal Prosecution for Fetal Liability 357 Demand Reduction by Expanding Treatment 359 Mandatory Treatment 359

11 xiv Contents Measuring the Result of Policy Changes 360 SUMMARY 361 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 361 REVIEW QUESTIONS 361 c H A p T E R 14 Drug Maintenance, Decriminalization, and Harm Reduction 363 Decriminalization of Drugs of Abuse 363 The Pros 364 The Cons 365 Policy Issues 367 Focus on Causes 367 Emergence of Decriminalization as a Policy Issue 368 Medical Maintenance as a Policy for Heroin? 369 What About Cocaine? 370 Comparison to Legal Substances 370 Efforts to Decriminalize Marijuana 372 Containment in Zurich 373 Needle-Exchange Programs 373 Harm Reduction 374 Principles of Harm Reduction 375 Reducing the Risky Consequences of Drug Use 376 Harm Reduction in the United Kingdom 377 Dutch Drug Policy 379 Dutch Policy Change to Harm Reduction 380 Problems Encountered by the Dutch 381 Canada Changes Direction 382 Conclusion 383 SUMMARY 385 INTERNET CONNECTIONS 386 REVIEW QUESTIONS 386 Glossary 387 References 393 Author Index 429 Subject Index 435 Photo Credits 438