Approaches in Psychology Advanced Approaches

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1 5c Approaches in Psychology Name:

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4 Psychodynamic approach The psychodynamic approach (the first force ) was developed by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century to explain personality, and it forms the basis of psychodynamic therapy. What the specification says: The psychodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, the structure of personality, that is Id, Ego and Superego, defence mechanisms including repression, denial and displacement, psychosexual stages. By the end of this topic you will be able to Learned Revised Nailed explain the Psychodynamic approach: Freud; the role of the unconscious, structure of personality (Id, Ego and Superego), defence mechanisms (repression, denial and displacement), psychosexual stages (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital) Evaluate the Psychodynamic approach: Freud; the role of the unconscious, structure of personality (Id, Ego and Superego), defence mechanisms (repression, denial and displacement), psychosexual stages (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital) Key Terms: Assumptions The mind is like an iceberg and the unconscious mind has a significant influence on behaviour Early childhood experiences have an impact on later adult behaviour Personality consists of three components: id, ego and superego, which determine our behaviour Children progress through a series of psychosexual stages. If a child becomes fixated at any stage it can affect their later behaviour The role of the unconscious Freud believed that a large part of the mind is not accessible (unconscious), yet is able to influence our behaviour. Freud likened the mind to an iceberg. The unconscious mind contains information that the conscious mind would find uncomfortable, so is represented by defence mechanisms to protect the person from anxiety. Defence mechanisms Defence mechanisms are unconscious strategies used by the ego to manage anxiety by redirecting psychic energy. Repression: the unconscious diversion of unacceptable wishes and desires to protect the person. They do not go away and continue to influence our behaviour. Denial: the refusal to accept reality in order to avoid psychological pain associated with it, e.g. a person might refuse to see that their partner is unfaithful even though to others it is obvious. Displacement: the redirection of impulses away from the real target to safer ones. 4

5 Psychosexual stages Freud proposed that the personality develops through a sequence of five developmental stages, each marked by conflicts and a different focus of psychological urges. Age Stage Development 0-18 Oral Focus on mouth; gratification achieved by feeding. It is dominant. months 18 months 3.5 years Anal Focus on anus; gratification gained by pooping. Ego develops through potty training years Phallic Focus on genitals; child passes through Oedipus or Electra stage; gender identity and superego develop, 6-12 years Latency Focus on developing relationships with others; the conflicts of previous three stages are repressed. 12+ years Genital Focus of sexual energy directed towards relationships with sexual partners. Structure of personality Freud proposed that our personalities consist of three distinct parts, which develop in childhood. Id Ego Superego Develops in the anal stage. It is the mediator between the id and reality, trying to get what the id wants but in a socially acceptable way (reality principle). Present from birth; unconscious; contains our primitive desires for sex and death. It demands immediate gratification (pleasure principle). Develops in the phallic stage; consists of the conscious and the ego ideal. This punishes us with guilt when we transgress the rules of society and pushes us to be good. 5

6 Evaluation Psychoanalysis was a pioneering approach to treatment based on case studies rather than introspection. The first to propose psychological treatments for disorders such as depression and anxiety. A large-scale review of psychotherapy studies concluded that psychoanalysis produced significant, long-lasting improvements in symptoms. This shows the value of the insights of psychoanalysis and treatments based on them. There is empirical evidence supporting aspects of psychodynamic theory such as unconscious motivations in behaviour, and the defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement. Although critics claim that psychoanalytic theory is not testable or falsifiable. In fact, many claims of psychoanalysis have been tested experimentally, and are supported by the findings. However, it is gender-biased because Freud was ignorant of female sexuality. He based his theories on male sexual development as the norm, and didn t take account of the differences in female sexuality. Later psychoanalysts have criticised Freud s work and developed new theory relating to women s development. The gender bias in Freud s theory is problematic as he treated many female patients, and also because his theories are still very influential. Psychoanalysis is also culture-biased, and so may have little relevance to those from non-western cultures. For example, in China a person who is depressed or anxious avoids distressing thoughts, rather than being willing to openly discuss. This contrasts with the Western belief that open discussion and insight are always helpful in therapy. Psychoanalysis developed in a Western, middle-class culture so has limitations in its application outside that culture. Finally, psychoanalysis is a comprehensive theory that can be used to explain human behaviour in many fields outside psychology. For example, in literary criticism, characters can be explored in terms of their unconscious motivations, or as a projection of unconscious aspects of the author s mind. This gives a language and common concepts for interpretation of literature, film and media. This explains the ongoing popularity of Freud s theories. 6

7 The aliens have landed! Learning objectives: Identify the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach. Outline the role of the unconscious mental processes. Explain the personality structure and dynamics. Challenge: Aliens have landed from Mars and they are interested in learning about Freud. They can only understand our language through interpreting images. You must use the following page to teach the Aliens about Freud and you can only use images. Rules: Form: You have 15 minutes to complete your page. You must make sure your content is accurate. Your images must be clear and visible. There is no limit on the images you may use. Content: Make reference to at least one assumption of the psychodynamic approach. Make reference to unconscious mental processes. Make reference to the personality structure. Provide an example of how the personality structures interact. This can be achieved by using an example such as smoking. 7

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9 Evidence? The analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy - The case study of Little Hans Freud s ideas about infant sexuality were based on his work with adult women (and his own self analysis) The CASE STUDY - (psychoanalytic therapy) was carried out by correspondence and interviews with Hans father The one with the widdler (castration anxiety) First reports when Hans was three, a peculiarly lively interest in his widdler His mother told him that she would call for Dr. A to cut it off Hans tries to give up putting his finger to his widdler Hans comment that widdlers are fixed in of course suggests a castration anxiety The one with Hans sister and the bath Hans baby sister was born - he was told the stork had brought the baby Early jealousy of sister was repressed and manifested as fear of bath Hans father asks Hans if he wishes Mummy would let go of his sister when she is bathing so she, Hanna, falls in Freud interprets this as death-wish against his sister for taking his Mummy away from him The one with the white horse Hans sees a horse fall down in the street and thinks it is dead Hans is terrified and believes that all horses will fall down Hans father interprets this as a death wish against him Hans starts playing biting games and tells his father not to trot away from him The one with the giraffe Dream about a big giraffe and a crumpled giraffe Hans took the crumpled one away from the big giraffe who called out Hans sits on crumpled one Hans denies that this is a dream Father sees this as reproduction of bedroom scene big giraffe = father and little giraffe = mother The one with the plumber - Plumber replaces Hans bottom with a bigger one - Plumber does the same with Hans widdler This is interpreted as resolution of Oedipus conflict because Hans now wants to be like his father rather than to get rid of him (identification with the aggressor) The one with the happy families Hans is playing with his imaginary children He fantasises that he is Daddy and his Mummy is their Mummy Hans father is the children s Grandfather He has consciously acknowledged his desire for his mother This resolves his Oedipus complex He is no longer afraid that his father will castrate him Freud s conclusion Little Hans phobia of horses was really fear of father (displacement) Castration anxiety during resolution of the Oedipus Conflict Anxiety resolved when Oedipus conflict successfully resolved Hans identifies with his father What are the strengths and limitations of this as evidence for Freud s theories? 9

10 Apply to demonstrate 1 The following statements refer to different approaches in psychology. Select one statement that describes the psychodynamic approach. A The mind is an information processor. B Behaviour is shaped by forces in the environment. C Behaviour is caused mainly by the unconscious. D Beliefs about oneself and the world affect behaviour. 2 Match the key terms on the left with the definitions on the right. Repression Oedipus conflict Unconscious mind Superego Defence mechanisms Libido The male child wishes to possess his mother Disturbing thoughts kept in the unconscious Protect the conscious mind from anxiety Sexual drive important in development Internalisation of societal and parental rules Responsible for most behaviour 3 A researcher looked at the effectiveness of treatment in two groups of patients suffering from symptoms of depression. One group received psychoanalytic therapy and the other group received cognitive behavioural therapy, both over a two-year period. These two groups were compared to a control group of patients who received no treatment over the same two-year period. The graph below shows the percentages of patients who reported a significant improvement in their depressive symptoms at three months, six months and one year. State two findings and for each one draw a conclusion (state what the findings show). Finding 1: Conclusion 1: This shows that Finding 2: Conclusion 2: This shows that 10

11 4 Sadie is a 40-year-old woman who has experienced high levels of anxiety since her teenage years. She doesn t remember much about her childhood but she knows it was traumatic and she tries not to think about it. However, her symptoms are now making it impossible to carry out normal everyday tasks like going shopping or meeting friends. She decides to try psychoanalysis after reading about it on the internet. Using your knowledge of the psychodynamic approach, what might Sadie expect to experience in psychoanalysis? What explanations might a psychoanalyst suggest for her symptoms, and how might the analysis help her? (6 marks) Identify the psychology Link to Sadie 11

12 Review Transform the psychodynamic approach into a comic strip or storyboard. Write a critical commentary of the psychodynamic approach. Use phrases such as This supports/suggests because Use a piece of evidence to write a PEEL of one key point. Point, Evidence, Explain, Link. Think about the psychodynamic approach and explain it using a cartoon character, TV character or celebrity. Pick out 5 key points on the psychodynamic approach and explain them in your own words. Write down everything you can remember about the psychodynamic approach from memory. Practice exam questions 1 Using two examples, outline what Freud meant by defence mechanism. (4 marks) 2 The psychodynamic approach places emphasis on the role of the unconscious in behaviour. Using an example, explain the role of the unconscious in behaviour. (4 marks) 3 Outline and evaluate the psychodynamic approach. As part of your evaluation, refer to the methods used by psychodynamic psychologists. (16 marks) 12

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18 Humanistic approach Humanistic psychology was developed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow in the 1950s. What the specification says: Humanistic Psychology: free will, self-actualisation and Maslow s hierarchy of needs, focus on the self, congruence, the role of conditions of worth. The influence on counselling Psychology. By the end of this topic you will be able to Learned Revised Nailed Explain Humanistic Psychology: Free will, self-actualization and Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the self, congruence and the role of conditions of worth. Counselling psychology Evaluate Humanistic Psychology: Free will, self-actualization and Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the self, congruence and the role of conditions of worth. Counselling psychology Key Terms: Assumptions Humanistic psychology emphasises the importance of holism the study of the whole person Every human is unique and has free-will to change Humans have an innate capacity for self-actualisation, which is a desire to achieve our highest potential Humanists reject scientific methods as a way of studying human behaviour The humanistic approach Known as the third force in psychology, humanistic psychology rejects the reductionist and deterministic views about human motivation and behaviour that arose from Freud s ideas and the early behaviourists (the second force ). This approach focuses on the subjective experience of being human, believing that every person is unique. The scientific method based on principles of reductionism is therefore not suited to the study of human experience. The humanistic approach has led to the development of counselling psychology. 18

19 Maslow s hierarchy of needs (1943, 1954) Maslow proposed that we are driven to be the best we can be, but this depends on having our needs met. Our basic needs are physiological and safety needs. Once these are met, our needs become more psychological. Only when these are also met are we able to achieve self-actualisation. Self-actualisation A core concept of the humanistic approach is that everyone has a drive to achieve self-actualisation. This is where you become the best person you can be and achieve your full potential as a human being. Progress towards self-actualisation depends on lower-level needs being met. To maintain self-actualisation, these lower needs must continue to be met. Self-actualisation is not the norm and most people do not achieve it. Free will Humanists argue that we are free to choose who we want to be (free will). In contrast, other approaches argue from a stance of determinism that who we are and who we become is pre-determined by other forces, such as nature (biology) or nurture (socialisation). Although the humanistic approach acknowledges the constraints set by nature and nurture, it still proposes that we have the subjective feeling of choice. Humanistic therapy Humanistic psychology led to the development of counselling as a form of therapy. This therapeutic treatment is used with clients who experience a wide variety of symptoms, to help people of all ages deal with emotional, social, developmental and other life concerns. 19

20 Conditions of worth According to the theory, personal growth is hampered by experiencing conditional positive regard where, in order to get positive regard, the person has to meet certain requirements. For example, a child may feel that they can only receive approval from a parent when they are performing well at school. Conditional positive regard limits the chances of achieving self-actualisation, as the person is unlikely to achieve congruence because they feel their ideal self and their self-concept are different. Clientcentred therapy aims to allow personal growth by providing unconditional positive regard where the client is accepted for who they are without judgement. Client-centred therapy The client-therapist relationship is of central importance to this therapy. The therapist must create conditions in which personal growth can take place. Personal growth depends on the client developing their own understanding of issues in their life and deciding for themselves how to overcome them. The therapist is non-directive and seeks to reflect back to the client whatever the client discloses in a climate of trust and mutual regard. In this way, clients solve their own problems by examining them in a situation where the therapist provides empathy and unconditional positive regard. Therapy focuses on the self Rogers (1951) proposed that there are three selves which need to be integrated in order to feel good. The selfconcept - the self you think you are; this is similar to self-esteem The ideal self - the self you aspire to being The real self - who you really are The three selves The aim of therapy is to explore issues that affect the balance between the selves. Only when there is balance can personal growth towards self-actualisation take place. 20

21 Congruence Rogers stated that for self-actualisation to be possible, the person s selves must be congruent. This means that the self-concept, the ideal self and the real self should be the same or very similar to each other. This is provided in a therapeutic setting by the therapist giving unconditional positive regard to the client. This allows the client to increase their self-esteem and adjust their sense of the ideal closer to the real self. However, Rogers felt that it was rare for a complete state of congruence to exist and that all people experience a certain amount of incongruence. Evaluation Research supports Rogers view that people who experience conditional positive regard display more false self behaviour. For example, teenagers who feel they have to fulfil certain conditions to gain their parents approval frequently dislike themselves. Researchers found that adolescents who create a false self ; pretending to be the sort of person their parents would love, are also more likely to develop depression. This supports conditions of worth ; the idea that unconditional positive regard from parents is essential for developing self-worth. Maslow s hierarchy applies more broadly to economic development of countries, as well as personal development of individuals. In the early stage of economic development, priority is on physiological and safety needs, such as food and reduction in murder rates. Once these basic needs have been met, countries then focus on esteem needs (e.g. women s rights) and self-actualisation (e.g. access to education). This evidence from 88 countries over a 34-year period supports a hierarchy of needs in societies as well as individuals. However, cultural differences exist as shown from cross-cultural studies. For example, a study in China found that belonging took priority over physiological needs, and self-actualisation related to contributions to the community rather than individual development. Many studies confirm that people in Western cultures focus more on person identity, whereas Chinese, Japanese and Koreans define selfconcept in terms of social relationships. Maslow acknowledged that needs may appear in a different order or may be absent altogether. This more flexible hierarchy fits the evidence better. Also, counselling cannot be tested experimentally due to the rigorous requirements of the experimental method. Rogers was an advocate of non-experimental research methods. Studies have shown personal growth as a result of humanistic counselling, but these do not show that therapy caused the changes. It is, therefore, difficult to evaluate the therapies or theories scientifically. Finally, the humanistic approach is unrealistic with an idealised view of human nature. It assumes that people are inherently growth-orientated, not recognising some people s capacity for self-destructive behaviour. In addition, the humanistic assumption that all problems arise from blocked self-actualisation ignores situational forces in society, such as prejudice and inequality of opportunity. This means that the humanistic approach does not give a full description of human behaviour and development. 21

22 Humanistic summary Use your own preferred method to summarise the humanistic approach below. 22

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25 Apply to demonstrate 1 According to Maslow s theory, the highest level of development is the fulfilling of self-actualisation needs, such as creativity, morality and acceptance. Which area of needs forms the level just before self-actualisation? Tick one box. A Love/belonging B Physiological C Esteem D Safety 2 Match the key terms on the left with the definitions on the right. Conditions of worth Congruence Free will Hierarchy of needs Humanistic Self-actualisation The motivational theory proposed by Maslow The ability to make decisions about how to act Similarity between the ideal self and self-image Meeting the expectations of others in order to be accepted The drive to achieve one s potential The belief that humans have a desire to grow, create and love 3 Read this student answer to the following exam question. Describe the influence of humanistic psychology on counselling. (4 marks) There are four mistakes draw a circle around each and correct them. Counsellors try to give their clients conditional positive regard, so that they feel accepted. They do this by listening without judgement and offering directive counselling. This results in the client developing more conditions of worth, so that they can be more authentic and true to self. Humanistic counselling is based on the idea that people can solve their own problems with support, and may just need to help understanding themselves better so they can move towards the ultimate goal of self-esteem. 25

26 4 Using your knowledge of humanistic psychology answer the following. Jasmine has been feeling very low since her relationship breakdown, and has gone to see a counsellor. The counsellor bases her practice on humanistic principles. Explain how the counsellor would try to help Jasmine. (6 marks) Identify the psychology Link to Jasmine s counselling 26

27 Review Transform the humanistic approach into a comic strip or storyboard. Opinionated Octopus. Evaluate the humanistic approach using 4 strengths and 4 weaknesses. Create a mind map or flow diagram of the humanistic approach, showing all the links and connections. Find/research a real life piece of evidence or news which illustrates the humanistic approach. Pick out 5 key points on the humanistic approach and explain them in your own words. Create an Acronym using the first letter of all the key terms, to help you remember them! Practice exam questions 1 Outline and evaluate two assumptions of humanistic psychology. (8 marks) 2 Humanistic psychology has been described as a unique approach. Discuss what makes humanistic psychology unique. Refer to alternative approaches in your answer. (16 marks) 27

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32 Comparison of approaches To demonstrate your knowledge of approaches in psychology, you may be asked to draw comparisons between them. This is easiest to do based on the issues in psychology. What the specification says: Comparison of approaches. By the end of this topic you will be able to Learned Revised Nailed Compare and contrast (similarities and differences) approaches in Psychology Key Terms: Determinism vs free will Biological Cognitive Learning / Behaviourist Psychodynamic Humanistic Proposes that genes, biochemistry and brain structure have a strong influence on behaviour. These are things we do not choose and cannot easily change, so this approach is deterministic with limited opportunity for free will. Information processing influences behaviour; as this is based on schema, which we can change, this approach argues for some element of free will. Pure behaviourism argues that who we are is shaped by our environment and develops through stimulus-response learning, so is very deterministic. Social learning theory takes a softer view, arguing that we have a choice of role model. Argues that behaviour is heavily influenced by our unconscious mind, which develops in early childhood and is beyond our control, so it is deterministic. This is the only approach that proposes human beings have free will and can choose to behave however they want. Reductionism vs holism Biological Cognitive Learning / Behaviourist Psychodynamic Humanistic This approach is very reductionist as it explains behaviour as resulting from the interaction between simple biological mechanisms such as genes, neurotransmitters and brain structure. Cognitive theories tend towards reductionism as they break down information processing into different functions such as memory or attention, when in fact the two are used together. Operant and classical conditioning are very reductionist as they explain complex behaviour in terms of simple stimulus-response learning. Social learning theory is less reductionist as it includes cognitive processes that mediate between the environment and the person s learning. Although not entirely holistic, as it advocates that much of our behaviour is governed by unconscious drives, it does take into account of a range of influences that can affect how we think, feel and behave. This approach is holistic. It believes people should be viewed as a whole, and rejects the idea that human behaviour can be broken down into components in any meaningful way. 32

33 Nature vs nurture Biological Cognitive Learning / Behaviourist Psychodynamic Humanistic This approach is strongly on the side of nature as it proposes that much of our behaviour is innate. However, it also accepts a role for nurture due to the plasticity of the brain it will change as a result of environmental factors. This approach accepts that both nature and nurture influence the development of information processing capability. Some cognitive mechanisms are innate but they are also shaped by experience. This approach is firmly based in nurture. Behaviourists would argue that we are born a blank slate with no predispositions imposed on us; all our behaviour is learned from the environment. Psychodynamic theorists would argue for an interactionist approach between the innate drive of the id and the socialising influences of the parents, which affect the development of other parts of the personality. This approach rejects the debate as not valid because the human condition cannot be broken down into specific influences. The drive to self-actualise is regarded as innate although it is heavily influenced by social factors. Idiographic vs nomothetic approaches Biological Cognitive Learning / Behaviourist Psychodynamic Humanistic Proposes general laws that apply universally based on common physiology. Individual differences can be explained by an understanding of the physiological aspects of the person. Accepts that individuals differ in some aspects of their information processing but proposes that the general mechanisms underlying this are the same for all people. Heavily nomothetic as it applies general laws of learning such as operant and classical conditioning across all species, not just humans. Social learning theory is more human-based but also nomothetic as it applies to all humans. Contains nomothetic elements such as the structure of personality, but also recognises all humans as unique products of multiple influences. Therefore, does not propose general explanations for specific behaviours. Very idiographic as it considers everyone to be unique, although it could be argued that elements such as the hierarch of needs apply to all people, so it is not entirely idiographic. 33

34 Comparison table Free will Vs Determinism Nature Vs Nurture Reductionism Vs Holism Idiographic Vs Nomothetic Scientific Humanistic Psychodynamic Cognitive Social learning theory Behaviourist Biological 34

35 Essay plan Biological Approach Outline (AO1) Behaviourist Approach Outline (AO1) Theme of comparison 1 (AO3) Nature/nurture Theme of comparison 1 (AO3) Nature/nurture Theme of comparison 2 (AO3) Treatment of disorders How effective/appropriate is the treatment? Bring in your knowledge from the Psychopathology unit Theme of comparison 2 (AO3) Treatment of disorders How effective/appropriate is the treatment? Bring in your knowledge from the Psychopathology unit General evaluation-which is a better explanation of behaviour and why? Does it explain some behaviours better than others? (AO3) General evaluation-which is a better explanation of behaviour and why? Does it explain some behaviours better than others? (AO3) 35

36 Apply to demonstrate 1 Which one of the following statements is false? Tick one box only. A Humanistic psychology is the least deterministic approach. B The behaviourist approach is the only one that totally discounts innate factors in behaviour. C The cognitive approach is based on experimental evidence. D The biological approach considers behaviour to originate entirely from innate factors (nature). 2 Read this student answer to the following exam question: Discuss one or more differences between the behaviourist and social learning approaches to psychology. (5 marks) The behaviourist approach believes that all behaviour is learnt by direct experience from the environment, whereas Social Learning Theory (SLT) says we can also learn by watching other people. In behaviourist theory, reinforcement needs to be experienced directly as a consequence of out own behaviour, but SLT includes the possibility of vicarious reinforcement. So behaviourism is deterministic, whereas SLT allows for free will and choices about how to behave. What mark do you think this would get? Why? Write an improved answer here: 36

37 3 Alex is determined to carry out a scientific experiment as part of his Extended Project Qualification research. His teacher explains that it is better to start with a research question and then decide on an appropriate research method. However, Alex is not deterred. Suggest an area of psychology that might be appropriate for Alex to study using an experimental method. Using your knowledge of the different approaches to psychology, what explanations might psychologists give for Alex s determination to carry out an experiment as part of his project? (6 marks) Approach Behaviourist Explanation of Alex s preference Social learning Cognitive Biological Psychodynamic Humanistic 37

38 Review Make a mind map of the six approaches. Then add on key words for each, relating to determinism, nature/nurture and scientific research methods. Now you could play a dice game; throw two dice to select two approaches, then flip a coin to select similarities or differences. Then state and elaborate a similarity or difference between these two approaches. Practice exam questions 1 Outline one way in which the psychodynamic approach and humanistic approach overlap. (2 marks) 2 Explain one difference between the cognitive approach and the biological approach. (2 marks) 3 Briefly discuss one similarity between behaviourism and social learning theory (4 marks) 4 Outline and briefly compare the cognitive approach and the humanistic approach. (8 marks) 5 Choose two approaches in psychology. Outline and compare these two approaches. (8 marks) 38

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