CYSTIC FIBROSIS-RELATED DIABETES

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1 GENERAL PAPERS 1 CYSTIC FIBROSIS-RELATED DIABETES Dana-Teodora Anton-Paduraru 1, Carmen Oltean 2, Maria-Liliana Iliescu 3, Ginel Baciu 4, Laura Mihaela Trandafir rd Clinic of Pediatrics, Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi 2 Children s Emergency Hospital Sf. Maria, Iasi 3 Department of Public Healthcare and Medical Management 4 Faculty of Medicine 1 st Clinic of Pediatrics, Dunǎrea de Jos University, Galati ABSTRACT Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes is an entity distinct from diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2, but with symptoms characteristic to them. Along with the extension of the life expectancy, the prevalence of diabetes increased in association with a more severe decline of the lung function and a poorer nutritional status in comparison to that of people with cystic fi brosis but without diabetes. The authors present current data regarding the prevalence and physiopathology of the disease, the clinical picture, and the useful examinations in establishing the diagnosis, the therapeutic possibilities and disease prognostic. We conclude that the early diagnosis and appropriate therapeutic interventions may diminish the negative impact of diabetes on the lung function and the nutritional status in cystic fi brosis. Keywords: cystic fi brosis, diabetes mellitus, child Patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) have only one type of diabetes, called cystic fibrosis related diabetes (CFRD), being described for the first time in 1955 (1,2). CFRD prevalence increased in time (from 1% in 1962 to 31% in 2007) and an increase has been noticed also with age: 9% between 5-9 years, 26% between years, 40% between years and 50% over 30 years. The disease is found in 20% of the patients with CFRD mutations class I- III and only in 1.5% of the patients with CFRD mutations class IV-V. The incidence is higher in patients with liver disease in CF, and the association of diabetes with CF makes morbidity and mortality 6 times higher (3,4,5). The risk factors involved in the CFRD association are: age, female gender, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, altered exocrine pancreatic function and organ transplant. The main cause in the emergence of CFRD is the insulin deficit the consequence of the progressive loss of β pancreatic cells. Specific CF factors determining fluctuations in the glucose metabolism are: lung infection and inflammation; increase in the energetic consumption; malnutrition; glucagon deficit; gastro-intestinal anomalies: malabsorption, gastric emptying disturbances and intestinal motility, liver disease (3,4,5). CFRD presents clinical and biological particularities in comparison to type 1 and 2 (Table 1). The CFRD pathophysiology is multifactorial, with genetic and environmental factors. Information plays an important role in the CFRD physiopathology, the glucose disturbances being more intense in patients with chronic inflammation and acute exacerbations of the chronic lung infection, and growing insulin resistance. Autoantibodies present in patients with diabetes mellitus type 1 are not detected in CFRD, and autoimmunity does not seem to play a significant role in the physiopathology of CFRD. Serum antibodies as a response to Coresponding author: Anton-Paduraru Dana-Teodora, Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Str., Iasi 7

2 8 TABLE 1. CFRD characteristics in comparison to diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 Diabetes mellitus type 1 Diabetes mellitus type 2 CFRD Onset acute insidious insidious Age of the onset child and adolescent adult years Positive Ab yes no probably not Insulin secretion absent low severely low, but not absent Sensitivity to insulin sometimes low severely low sometimes low Treatment insulin diet, oral antidiabetic medication insulin Microvascular complications yes yes yes, but few Macrovascular complications yes yes no Causes of death cardiovascular disease, nephropathy cardiovascular disease lung disease bacterial antigens (for example: anti-p. aeruginosa IgG ab) are involved in the emergence of CFRD and are significantly high 3-12 months before diabetes mellitus. This aspect suggests that chronic bacterial infection is the cause for progressive destruction of β pancreatic cells Fig. 1 (4,6,7). The onset of the disease is insidious, patients being asymptomatic for many years (at least 4 years). The average age of the onset is years, being rarely under 10 years old. In girls, the age of the onset is smaller by 5-7 years in comparison to boys, probably because of the earlier debut of puberty FIGURE 1. CFRD Pathophysiology (7)

3 9 and the association of the increased insulin resistance at this age. The onset is more frequent in circumstances in which insulin resistance is higher: acute lung infections; severe chronic lung disease; treatment with glucocorticoids; carbohydrate supplements (oral, percutaneous, intravenous, gastrostoma); post-transplant immunosuppressive treatments (8,9). The clinical picture includes classic symptoms for diabetes (polyuria, polydipsia, weight loss) as well as other symptoms: fatigue, alteration of the lung function without a direct connection to the exacerbation of the lung infection, late puberty (1,2,8). The CFRD diagnosis implies the performance of: the glycemia: values of over 200 mg/ dl (mmol/ l) raises suspicion of diabetes, but normal values under 100 mg/dl (5.6 mmol/l) do not exclude the diagnosis either (1,2,10); the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT): representing the standard test for the CFRD diagnosis. This will be performed annually in all children with CF over 10 years, and diabetes with a normal glycemia á jeun may be detected only based on the OGTT. The measurement of the insulin concentration every 30 minutes during the OGTT may be useful in determining the insulin deficit degree. The interpretation of the OGTT in CF is presented in table 2, and the behaviour depending on the test results in table no. 3 (1,2,6,11,12,13). TABLE 2. Interpretation of the OGTT in patients with CF Glycemia á jeun mg/dl (mmol/l) Normal tolerance under 100 (under 5,6) CFRD: normal glycemia á jeun high glycemia á jeun Low glucose tolerance (5,6-6,9) Glycemia every 2 hours mg/dl (mmol/l) under 140 (7,8) under 126 (7) over 200 (11,1) over 126 (7) over 200 (11,1) (7,8-11) TABLE 3. Behaviour depending on the OGTT results OGTT screening results NORMAL To be repeated annually LOW To be repeated after 1 year or earlier if the TOLERANCE clinical parameters aggravate (lung function, unjustified weight loss) CFRD Monitoring glycemia for 2 weeks, nutritional journal; of the values are normal, the OGTT is to be repeated after 6 months glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c): it is often normal because in CF the life expectancy of red blood cells is under 3 months, being affected by chronic infection, which alters the glycosylation or because intermittent hyperglycemia is not high or persistent enough to increase the HbA1c. Only 16% of the people with CF have high values at the time of the diagnosis (1,2,6). The objectives of the CFRD treatment are: eradication of the hyper-/hypoglycemia symptoms; appropriate maintenance of the nutritional status, growth and lung function. Insulin-therapy represents the only recommended medicamental therapy. It is useful in stabilizing the lung function and improving the nutritional status. The choice of the insulin type depends on the individual needs and patient s characteristics. Rapidly administrated insulin in 3-4 intakes/ day controls postprandial hyperglycemic episodes and allows a more flexible diagram. 1 UI covers 15 g of carbohydrates. The insulin dose will be adjusted depending on the carbohydrate intake and in the following circumstances: during enteral nutrition: an extra-dose of insulin may be necessary during and after nutrition sessions to cover the carbohydrate charge; in infectious exacerbations, even if the food intake decreases due to the loss of appetite; after liver/lung transplant, as the medication used for immunosuppression increases insulin-resistance or destroys (temporarily/ permanently) the function of pancreatic cells; the insulin necessary also grows in case of weight gain (1,2,6,14,15). Oral antidiabetic medication is not approved by the CF Foundation Consensus. There are few studies on two classes of antidiabetics: antidiabetics that increase the insulin secretion (Glipizide, Glyburide) and antidiabetics that make cells more sensitive to insulin (Metformin), but they are not recommended because of the risk of side effects (lactic acidosis, nausea, diarrhea, abdominal discomfort) (1,2,14). The objectives of nutritional therapy are: maintaining normal nutritional status; ensuring optimum growth and development; hyperglycemia control, minimizing the risk of chronic complications. The factors that need to be taken into account are: appetite; nutritional status; lifestyle;

4 10 socioeconomic conditions; psychological factors. The diet recommendations in CF contradict the ones for diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 and must be solved in favour of the ones for CF. The hypercaloric diet rich in lipids maintaining the nutritional status must continue during CFRD. The increased caloric intake will be maintained both with simple and complex carbohydrates. Low glycemic index carbohydrates may be consumed and distributed equally during the day in order to optimize the glycemic control. A healthy diet must include a variety of foods of the 6 food groups (fruits, vegetables, dairies, grains, meat, oils) that provide the 6 types of nutrients (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, water) (1,2,6, 14,15,16). Table 4 presents comparatively the dietetic recommendations in diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 and in CFRD (1,2). Foods containing carbohydrates affect the glycemic level, while foods containing proteins and lipids have a low effect. Still, lipids slow down the carbohydrate absorption in the bowel with indirect effect on the glycemia (Fig. 2). Foods rich in fibres do not have special effects on the glycemic level. Alcohol suppresses gluconeogenesis, having a hypoglycemic effect (6). Nutrient Effects on Blood Sugar Blood Sugar Meal carbohydrates Meal protein TIME FIGURE 2. Effects of foods on glycemia (6) Meal fat Nutritional supplements must be included in the diet of patients with CFRD: suplplements that contain glucose polymers (Polycal, Maxijul, Nutren junior, Caloreen) will be administered during the meal due to the fact that being rapidly absorbed, they determine a quick increase in the glycemic level; milk-based polymeric supplements (Ensure, Scandishake, Fresubin) are most frequently used: they contain simple sugars with an impact on glycemia, but the presence of lipids and proteins, as well as the low content of carbohydrates lead to a lower increase in the glycemic level (1,2,16,17). Enteral nutrition (through nasogastric tube or gastrostoma) is necessary to improve or maintain the nutritional status in CF. At the same time, OGTT must be performed in all patients proposed for enteral nutrition to exclude diabetes. In 64% of the cases, hyperglycemia is associated with the beginning of nocturnal nutrition. Pre- and post-enteral nutrition monitoring and at least one monitoring during enteral nutrition must become routine practice (1,2). Parenteral nutrition is rarely indicated as a routine nutritional support. It is reserved on short term for patients with complications of the short bowel syndrome or postoperative complications. During parenteral nutrition, monitoring of the glycemic level is recommended every hour at the beginning, and then every 4-6 hours (1,2). The glycemic changes during physical exercise depend on the level of the insulinemia, on the type of insulin, and on the time of the insulin intake. The glycemic level must be monitored before and after physical activity, taking into account that hypoglycemia can emerge hours after physical exercise. Fast acting carbohydrate snacks are also necessary during and after physical exercise, hydration before, during and after physical exercise, as well as extra salt intake (1,2). Lung transplant is not contraindicated in patients with CFRD. Patients with CFRD may have initially increased needs of post-transplant treatment due to the immunosuppressive medication. TABLE 4. Dietetic recommendations in diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 and in CFRD Diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 CFRD Calories under 100% of the normal intake for the specific age and gender; sometimes caloric restrictions to prevent obesity % of the intake normal for the specific age and gender (to prevent malnutrition) Lipids 30-35% of the necessary caloric intake 40% of the necessary caloric intake Refined sugars up to 10% of the necessary intake no restrictions Carbohydrates 50-55% of the necessary caloric intake 45-50% of the necessary caloric intake Fibres years of age + 5 g/day yes for the properly nourished in malnourished, they compromise the energetic intake Proteins 10-15% of the necessary caloric intake; 200% in comparison to the normal intake up to 1 g/body kg/day Salt under 6 g/day increased necessary intake

5 11 There are situations in which the debut of posttransplant CFRD is precipitated by steroid pulsations for acute rejection, increased doses of Cyclosporine or Tacrolimus (17). In patients with CF and hepatic affectation CFRD emergence has increased prevalence, even in small ages. Liver treatment is a solution for longterm evolution and periodical post-transplant test of glycemia will minimize the risk of complications on short or long term. CFRD management includes glycemia monitoring during: infectious exacerbations: patients have hyperglycemia risk (the necessary insulin intake will be 4 times higher than the usual dose), and due to low appetite, solid foods are not tolerated, therefore fluids containing carbohydrates (milk, supplements) need to be ingested every 2-3 hours. corticosteroid treatment; after the beginning of enteral feeding (every 2-3 hours); before and after surgical procedures; hypoglycemia symptoms; pregnancy (1,2,15). CFRD prognostic: The diagnose of diabetes in patients with CF represents the development of the second chronic disease, with important psychological implications. The presence of CFRD is associated with: alteration of the lung function: the rate of lung function decline is directly proportional to the degree of glucose tolerance and the insulin deficit; FEV1 72% in CF in comparison to 52% in CF associated to diabetes; poor nutritional status; decrease in the survival rate to 25%, in comparison to 60% in patients without CFRD. Risk factors for complications are represented by the long-term evolution of diabetes mellitus and inappropriate glycemic control. Microvascular complications emerge after 10 years of evolution of the CFRD, rarely during the first 5 years from the debut of diabetes. They are represented by: retinopathy (10-36%), microalbuminuria (10-21%), neuropathy (3-30%), gastropathy. No macrovascular complications have been reported until now (1,2,4,6). CONCLUSIONS CFRD remains one of the most important comorbidities in CF, associated with high mortality and morbidity due to the alterated lug disfunction and nutritional status. CFRD being a complication with insidious onset the glucose tolerance test remains the main screening instrument for the CFRD diagnosis. Early diagnose and appropriate therapeutic interventions can diminish the negative impact of diabetes on the lung function in CF. Maintaining the optimum nutritional status in patients with CF remains the main treatment objective and can improve survival. Diet recommendations specific to diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 are not applicable to patients with CFRD. The complexity of the daily diet for CF (enzymatic substitution, multiple medication for the respiratory conditions, vitamins) is aggravated by the requirements for CFRD. The treatment for CFRD calls for a multidisciplinary team, and insulin remains the most efficient pharmacological agent. REFERENCES 1. O Riordan S., Robinson P., Donaghue Kim, Moran Antoinette. Management of cystic fibrosis-related diabetes in children and adolescents. Pediatric Diabetes 2009; 10(Suppl 12): O Riordan S., Robinson P., Donaghue Kim, Moran Antoinette. Management of cystic fibrosis-related diabetes. Pediatric Diabetes 2008; 9 (Part 1): Stecenko Arlene, Moran Antoinette. Update on Cystic Fibrosis- Related Diabetes. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2010; 16(6): Moran Antoinette, Becker Dorothy, Casella S., Gotlieb P., Kirkman Sue, Marshall B. şi colab. Epidemiology, Pathophysiology and Prognostic Implications of Cystic Fibrosis-Related Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2010; 33(12): Ode Katie, Moran Antoinette. New insights into cystic fibrosisrelated diabetes in children. The Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology 2013; 1(1): Brunzell C., Hardin Dana, Moran Antoinette, Schindler T., Schissel Kathleen. Managing Cystic Fibrosis-Related Diabetes (CFRD) An Instruction Guide for Patients and Families. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation 4 th Ed.; Rana M., Munns Craig, Selvadurai H., Donaghue Kim, Craig Maria. Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes in children - gaps in the evidence? Nature Reviews Endocrinology 2010; 6: Brennan A.l., Geddes D.M., Baker K.M. Clinical importance of cystic fibrosis-related diabetes. J Cyst Fibros 2004; 3(4): Kelly Andrea, Moran Antoinette. Update on cystic fibrosis-related diabetes. J Cystic Fibrosis 2013; 12(4): O Riordan S., Dattani M., Hindmarsh P. Cystic Fibrosis-Related Diabetes in Childhood. Horm Res Paediatr 2010; 73: Lek N., Acerini C.L. Cystic fibrosis related diabetes mellitus- diagnostic and management challenges. Curr Diabetes Rev 2010; 6(1): 9-16.

6 Mansour K. Investigation of Screening Methods for Impaired Glucose Control in Children with Cystic Fibrosis. TSMJ 2000; 1: Larson Ode Katie, Frohnert Brigitte, Laguna Theresa, Phillips J., Holme Bonnie, Regelmann W. si colab. Oral Glucose Tolerance Testing in Children with Cystic Fibrosis. Pediatr Diabetes 2010; 11(7):. doi: /j x. 14. Nathan B., Moran Antoinette. Treatment recommendations for cystic fibrosis-related diabetes: Too little, too late? Thorax 2011; 66(7): Laguna Theresa, Nathan B., Moran Antoinette. Managing diabetes in cystic fibrosis. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism 2010; 12(10): Nathan B., Laguna Theresa, Moran Antoinette. Recent trends in cystic fibrosis-related diabetes. Curr Opin in Endocrinol, Diabetes and Obesity 2010; 17 (4): Zirbes Jacquelyn, Milla Carlos. Cystic fibrosis related diabetes. Paediatr Respiratory Reviews 2009; 10:

7 1 REFERATE GENERALE DIABETUL ZAHARAT DIN FIBROZA CHISTICǍ (MUCOVISCIDOZǍ) Dana-Teodora Anton-Pǎduraru 1, Carmen Oltean 2, Maria-Liliana Iliescu 3, Ginel Baciu 4, Laura Mihaela Trandafir 1 1 Secţia clinicǎ Pediatrie III, Universitatea de Medicinǎ şi Farmacie Gr. T. Popa, Iaşi 2 Spitalul de Urgenţe pentru Copii Sf. Maria, Universitatea de Medicinǎ şi Farmacie Gr. T. Popa, Iaşi 3 Departamentul de Sǎnǎtate publicǎ şi Management sanitar, Universitatea de Medicinǎ şi Farmacie Gr. T. Popa, Iaşi 4 Facultatea de Medicinǎ Clinica I, Pediatrie, Universitatea Dunǎrea de Jos, Galaţi REZUMAT Diabetul asociat fi brozei chistice este o entitate distinctǎ comparativ cu diabetul zaharat tip 1 şi 2, dar care are şi simptome caracteristice acestora. Odatǎ cu prelungirea speranţei de viaţǎ, şi prevalenţa diabetului a crescut, asociindu-se cu un declin mai sever al funcţiei pulmonare şi cu stare nutriţionalǎ mai precarǎ comparativ cu ale pacienţilor cu fi brozǎ chisticǎ, dar fǎrǎ diabet. Autorii prezintǎ date actuale cu privire la prevalenţa şi fi ziopatologia bolii, tabloul clinic, examenele utile în stabilirea diagnosticului, posibilitǎţile terapeutice şi prognosticul bolii. Con cluzionǎm cǎ diagnosticarea precoce şi intervenţiile terapeutice adecvate pot diminua impactul negativ al diabetului asupra funcţiei pulmonare şi satusului nutriţional în FC. Cuvinte cheie: fi brozǎ chisticǎ, diabet zaharat, copil În evoluţia fibrozei chistice poate apărea un tip unic de diabet numit cystic fibrosis related diabetes (CFRD). Complicaţia a fost semnalatǎ încǎ din 1955 (1,2). Prevalenţa CFRD a crescut de-a lungul timpului (de la 1% în 1962 la 31% în 2007) odatǎ cu creşterea duratei de viaţǎ a bolnavilor cu FC: 9% între 5-9 ani, 26% între ani, 40% între ani şi 50% peste 30 ani. Boala se întâlneşte la 20% dintre pacienţii cu mutaţii CFTR clasa I-III şi numai la 1,5% dintre pacienţii cu mutaţii CFTR clasa IV-V. Incidenţa este mai mare la pacienţii cu boalǎ he paticǎ în FC; asocierea diabetului cu FC creşte morbiditatea şi mortalitatea de 6 ori (3,4,5). Factorii de risc implicaţi în asocierea CFRD sunt: vârsta, sexul feminin, insuficienţa pancreaticǎ exocrinǎ, funcţia pancreaticǎ exocrinǎ alteratǎ şi transplantul de organe. Cauza principalǎ în apariţia CFRD este deficitul de insulinǎ, consecinţǎ a pierderii progresive a celulelor β pancreatice. Factorii specifici FC care determinǎ fluctuaţii în metabolismul glucozei sunt: infecţia şi inflamaţia pulmonarǎ; creşterea consumului energetic; malnutriţia; deficitul de glucagon; anomaliile gastro-intestinale: malabsorbţia, afectarea evacuǎrii gastrice şi a motilitǎţii intes tinale, boala hepaticǎ (3,4,5). Diabetul care complicǎ FC prezintǎ particularitǎţi clinico-biologice comparativ cu diabetul zaharat tip 1 şi 2 (Tabelul 1). Fiziopatologia CFRD este multifactorialǎ, in tervenind factori genetici şi de mediu. Infla ma ţia joacǎ un rol important în fiziopatologia CFRD, per tur bǎrile glucozei fiind mai pronunţate la pacienţii cu inflamaţie cronicǎ şi exacerbǎri acute al infecţiei pulmonare cronice, iar insulino-rezistenţa crescând. Autoanticorpii prezenţi la pacienţii cu diabet za harat tip 1 nu sunt detectaţi în CFRD, iar autoimunitatea nu pare a juca un rol apreciabil în fiziopatologia Autor de corespondenţă: Dana-Teodora Anton-Pǎduraru, Universitatea de Medicinǎ şi Farmacie Gr. T. Popa, Str. Universităţii nr. 16, Iaşi 62

8 63 TABELUL 1. Caracteristicile CFRD comparativ cu diabetul zaharat tip 1 şi 2 Diabet zaharat tip 1 Diabet zaharat tip 2 CFRD Debut acut insidios insidios Vârstă debut copil şi adolescent adult ani Ac pozitivi da nu probabil nu Secreţie insulină absentă scăzută scăzută sever, dar nu absentă Sensibilitate la insulină câteodată scăzută scăzută sever câteodată scăzută Tratament insulină dietă, antidiabetice orale insulină Complicaţii microvasculare da da da, dar puţine Complicaţii macrovasculare da da nu Cauze deces boală cardiovasculară, nefropatie boală cardiovasculară boală pulmonară CFRD. Anticorpii serici ca rǎspuns la antigenele bac teriene (exemplu: Ac anti-p. aeruginosa IgG) sunt implicaţi în apariţia CFRD şi sunt semnificativ crescuţi cu 3-12 luni înaintea debutului diabetului. Acest aspect sugereazǎ cǎ infecţia bacterianǎ cronicǎ este cauza distrucţiei progresive a celulelor β pan creatice Fig. 1 (4,6,7). Debutul bolii este insidios, bolnavii find mulţi ani asimptomatici (minimum 4 ani). Vârsta medie de debut este ani, fiind rar sub 10 ani. La fete vârsta de debut a bolii este mai micǎ cu 5-7 ani com parativ cu bǎieţii, probabil datoritǎ debutului mai precoce al pubertǎţii şi asocierii insulino-rezistenţei crescute la aceastǎ vârstǎ. FIGURA 1. Fiziopatologia CFRD (7)

9 64 Debutul este mai frecvent în situaţii care induc rezistenţǎ crescutǎ la insulinǎ: infecţii pulmonare acute; boalǎ pulmonarǎ cronicǎ severǎ; tratament cu glucocorticoizi; suplimentare alimentarǎ cu glucide (oralǎ, percutanǎ, intravenoasǎ, gastrostomǎ); tratamente imunosupresive iniţiate post-transplant (8,9). Tabloul clinic cuprinde simptome clasice pentru diabet (poliurie, polidipsie, scǎdere ponderalǎ), dar şi alte simptome: obosealǎ, alterarea funcţiei pulmonare fǎrǎ legǎturǎ directǎ cu exacerbarea infecţiei pulmonare, pubertate întârziatǎ (1,2,8). Diagnosticul CFRD este elaborat prin urmǎ toarele determinǎri: glicemia: valori peste 200 mg/dl (11,1 mmoli/l) ridicǎ suspiciunea de diabet, dar nici valorile normale sub 100 mg/dl (5,6 mmoli/l) nu exclud diagnosticul (1,2,10); testul de toleranţǎ la glucozǎ pe cale oralǎ (TTGO): reprezintǎ testul standard pentru diagnosticul CFRD. Acesta va fi efecuat anual la toţi copiii cu FC cu vârsta peste 10 ani, iar diabetul cu glicemie á jeun normalǎ poate fi detectat numai prin TTGO. Mǎsurarea concentraţiei insulinei la fiecare 30 minute în timpul TTGO poate fi utilǎ în aprecierea gradului de deficit insulinic. Interpretarea TTGO în FC este prezentatǎ în Tabelul 2, iar conduita în func ţie de rezultatele acestuia în Tabelul 3 (1,2,6, 11,12,13). hemoglobina glicozilatǎ (HbA1c): adesea este normalǎ deoarece în FC durata de viaţǎ a hematiilor este sub 3 luni, fiind afectatǎ de infecţia cronicǎ care altereazǎ glicozilarea sau deoarece hiperglicemia intermitentǎ nu este suficient de mare sau de per sistentǎ pentru a creşte HbA1c. Numai 16% dintre bolnavii cu FC au valori crescute în momentul diagnosticului (1,2,6). Tratamentul CFRD are ca obiective: eradicarea simptomelor de hiper-/hipoglicemie; menţinerea adecvatǎ a statusului nutriţional, creşterii şi funcţiei pulmonare. Insulinoterapia reprezintǎ singura terapie medicamentoasǎ recomandatǎ. Este utilǎ în stabilizarea funcţiei pulmonare şi ameliorarea statusului nutriţional. Alegerea tipului de insulinǎ depinde de nevoile individuale şi caracteristicile pacientului. Insulina rapidǎ administratǎ în 3-4 prize/zi controleazǎ episoadele hiperglicemice post-prandiale şi permite o schemǎ mai flexibilǎ. 1 UI de insulinǎ acoperǎ g carbohidraţi. Doza de insulinǎ va fi ajustatǎ în funcţie de aportul de glucide şi în urmǎtoarele situaţii: în cursul nutriţiei enterale: poate fi necesarǎ o extradozǎ de insulinǎ în cursul şi dupǎ şedinţele de nutriţie pentru a acoperi sarcina carbohidraţilor; în exacerbǎrile infecţioase chiar dacǎ aportul alimentar scade datoritǎ scǎderii apetitului; dupǎ transplant hepatic/pulmonar deoarece medicaţia folositǎ pentru imunosupresie creşte insulinorezistenţa sau distruge (temporar/permanent) funcţia celulelor pancreatice; în cazul creşterii în greutate va creşte şi necesarul de insulinǎ (1,2,6,14,15). Antidiabeticele orale nu sunt aprobate prin CF Foundation Consensus. Existǎ puţine studii asupra a douǎ clase de antidiabetice: antidiabetice care cresc secreţia de insulinǎ (Glipizide, Glyburide) şi antidia betice care fac celulele mai sensibile la insulinǎ (Metformin), acestea nefiind recomandate datoritǎ riscului de apariţie a efectelor adverse (acidozǎ lacticǎ, greţuri, diaree, disconfort abdominal) (1,2,14). Terapia nutriţionalǎ are ca obiective: menţinerea statusului nutriţional normal; asigurarea creşterii şi dezvoltǎrii optime; TABELUL 2. Interpretarea TTGO la pacienţii cu FC Glicemie á jeun mg/dl (mmoli/l) Glicemie la 2 ore mg/dl (mmoli/l) Toleranţă normală sub 100 (sub 5,6) sub 140 (7,8) CFRD: glicemie á jeun normală sub 126 (7) peste 200 (11,1) glicemie á jeun crescută peste 126 (7) peste 200 (11,1) Toleranţă scăzută la glucoză (5,6-6,9) (7,8-11) TABELUL 3. Conduita în funcţie de rezultatele TTGO Rezultate screening TTGO NORMAL TOLERANŢĂ SCĂZUTĂ CFRD se va repeta anual se va repeta peste 1 an sau mai devreme dacă parametrii clinici se agra - vează (funcţia pulmonară, scădere ponderală nejustificată) monitorizarea glicemiei la 2 săptămâni, jurnal alimentar; dacă valorile sunt normale, se repetă TTGO peste 6 luni

10 65 controlul hiperglicemiei, cu minimalizarea riscului de complicaţii cronice. Factorii care trebuie luaţi în calcul sunt: apetitul; statusul nutriţional; stilul de viaţǎ; condiţiile socio-economice; factorii psihologici. Recomandǎrile dietetice în FC sunt în contradicţie cu cele din diabetul zaharat tip1 şi 2 şi trebuie rezolvate în favoarea celor pentru FC. Dieta hipercaloricǎ, bogatǎ în lipide, care menţine statusul nutriţional trebuie sǎ continue şi în cursul CFRD. Menţinerea aportului caloric crescut se va realiza atât cu glucide simple, cât şi complexe. Glucidele cu index glicemic scăzut pot fi consumate şi distribuite egal pe tot parcursul zilei pentru a optimiza controlul glicemic. O dietǎ sǎnǎtoasǎ trebuie sǎ cuprindǎ o varietate de alimente din cele 6 grupe alimentare (fructe, legume, lactate, cereale, carne, grǎ simi) care sǎ furnizeze cele 6 tipuri de nutrienţi (proteine, lipide, glucide, vitamine, minerale, apǎ) (1,2,6,14,15,16). Recomandǎrile dietetice în CFRD sunt diferite de cele din diabetul zaharat tip 1 şi 2 (Tabelul 4) (1,2). Alimentele care conţin carbohidraţi afecteazǎ ni velul glicemiei, în timp ce alimentele care conţin proteine şi lipide au efect scǎzut. Totuşi, lipidele încetinesc absorbţia carbohidraţilor din intestin, având efect indirect asupra glicemiei (Fig. 2). Alimentele bogate în fibre nu au efecte speciale asupra FIGURA 2. Efectele alimentelor asupra glicemiei (6) glicemiei. Alcoolul suprimǎ gluconeogeneza, având efect hipoglicemic (6). Suplimentele nutritive trebuie incluse în dieta bol navilor cu CFRD în anumite condiţii: suplimentele care conţin polimeri din glucozǎ (Polycal, Maxijul, Nutren junior, Caloreen) vor fi administrate în timpul mesei deoarece, fiind rapid absorbite, determinǎ o creştere rapidǎ a glicemiei; suplimentele polimerice bazate pe lapte (Ensure, Scandishake, Fresubin) sunt cele mai utilizate deoarece conţin zaharuri simple care au impact asupra glicemiei, dar prezenţa lipidelor şi a proteinelor, precum şi conţinutul scǎzut în carbohidraţi, conduc la o creştere mai micǎ a glicemiei (1,2,16,17). Alimentaţia enteralǎ (prin tub naso-gastric sau gastrostomǎ) este necesarǎ pentru ameliorarea sau menţinerea statusului nutriţional în FC. În acelaşi timp, nutriţia enteralǎ este factor de risc pentru dezvoltarea CFRD. Prin urmare, TTGO trebuie efectuat la toţi pacienţii propuşi pentru nutriţie enteralǎ în vederea excluderii diabetului. În 64% dintre cazuri hiperglicemia este asociatǎ cu începerea alimentaţiei nocturne. Monitorizarea glicemiei pre- şi post-nutriţie enteralǎ şi minimum o datǎ în cursul nutriţiei enterale trebuie sǎ devinǎ practicǎ de rutinǎ (1,2). Nutriţia parenteralǎ este rareori indicatǎ ca suport nutriţional de rutinǎ. Este rezervatǎ pe termen scurt pacienţilor cu complicaţii ale sindromului de intestin scurt sau post-operatorii. În cursul nutriţiei parenterale se recomandǎ monitorizarea glicemiei iniţial din orǎ în orǎ, apoi la 4-6 ore interval (1,2). Modificǎrile glicemice în cursul exerciţiilor fizice depind de nivelul insulinemiei, de tipul de insulinǎ şi de momentul efectuǎrii insulinei. Se impune monitorizarea glicemiei înainte şi dupǎ activitatea fizicǎ, cu menţiunea cǎ hipoglicemia poate apărea la de ore dupǎ exerciţiul fizic. De asemenea, sunt necesare gustǎri cu glucide cu acţiune rapidǎ TABELUL 4. Recomandări dietetice în diabetul zaharat tip 1 şi 2 şi în CFRD Diabet zaharat tip 1 şi 2 CFRD Calorii sub 100% din normalul pentru vârstă şi sex; uneori restricţii calorice pentru a preveni obezitatea % din normalul pentru vârstă şi sex (pentru a preveni malnutriţia) Lipide 30-35% din necesarul caloric 40% din necesarul caloric Zaharuri rafinate până la 10% din necesar fără restricţie Carbohidraţi 50-55% din necesarul caloric 45-50% din necesarul caloric Fibre vârsta în ani + 5 g/zi da, la cei bine nutriţi la malnutriţi compromit aportul energetic Proteine 10-15% din necesarul caloric; 200% faţă de aportul normal nu peste 1 g/kgc/zi Sare sub 6 g/zi necesităţi crescute

11 66 în cursul şi dupǎ exerciţiul fizic, hi dratarea înainte, în timpul şi dupǎ exerciţiul fizic, precum şi suplimen tarea cu sare (1,2). Transplantul pulmonar nu este contraindicat la pacienţii cu CFRD. La cei cu CFRD necesitǎţile de tratament post-transplant pot creşte iniţial datoritǎ imunosupresivelor. Existǎ şi situaţii în care debutul CFRD post-transplant este precipitat de pulsaţii cu steroizi pentru rejecţia acutǎ, doze crescute de Ciclosporinǎ sau Tacrolimus (17). La pacienţii cu FC şi afectare hepaticǎ apariţia CFRD are o prevalenţǎ crescutǎ, chiar la vârste mai mici. Transplantul hepatic este o soluţie pentru evo - luţia pe termen lung, iar controlul periodic posttran splant al glicemiei va minimaliza riscul apariţiei complicaţiilor pe termen scurt sau lung. Mangementul CFRD include şi monitorizarea gli cemiei în cursul: exacerbǎrilor infecţioase: pacienţii prezintǎ risc de hiperglicemie (necesarul de insulinǎ va fi crescut de 4 ori faţǎ de doza uzualǎ), iar din cauza apetitului scǎzut alimentele solide sunt netolerate, fiind necesarǎ ingestia de lichide care conţin carbohidraţi (lapte, supli mente) la fiecare 2-3 ore. tratamentului cu corticosteroizi; dupǎ începerea suplimentǎrii alimentaţiei pe cale enteralǎ (la 2-3 ore); înainte şi dupǎ intervenţiile chirurgicale; simptomelor de hipoglicemie; sarcinii (1,2,15). Prognosticul CFRD: CFRD reprezintǎ o a doua boalǎ cronicǎ suprapusǎ suferinţei cronice din FC. Momentul diagnosticului are implicaţii psihologice importante. Prezenţa CFRD este asociatǎ cu: alterarea funcţiei pulmonare: rata de declin a funcţiei pulmonare este direct proporţionalǎ cu gradul toleranţei la glucozǎ şi deficitul de insulinǎ; FEV1 72% în FC comparativ cu 52% în FC asociată cu diabet (7); status nutriţional precar; scǎderea ratei de supravieţuire la 25% comparativ cu 60% la cei fǎrǎ CFRD (4). Factorii de risc pentru apariţia complicaţiilor sunt reprezentaţi de durata lungǎ de evoluţie a diabetului zaharat şi controlul glicemic inadecvat. Complicaţiile microvasculare apar dupǎ 10 ani de evoluţie a CFRD, fiind rare în primii 5 ani de la debutul diabetului. Sunt reprezentate de: retinopatie (10-36%), microalbuminurie (10-21%), neuropatie (3-30%), gastropatie. Nu au fost raportate pânǎ în prezent complicaţii macrovasculare (1,2,4,6). CONCLUZII CFRD este una dintre cele mai importante comorbiditǎţi în FC, asociatǎ cu mortalitate şi morbiditate crescute prin agravarea disfuncţiei pulmonare şi a statusului nutriţional. CFRD fiind o complicaţie cu debut insidios, trebuie cǎutat prin testul de toleranţǎ la glucozǎ (aplicare screening) deoarece diagnosticarea precoce şi intervenţiile terapeutice adecvate pot diminua impactul negativ al diabetului asupra funcţiei pulmonare în FC. Menţinerea statusului nutriţional optim la pa cienţii cu FC rǎmâne principalul obiectiv al trata mentului şi poate ameliora supravieţuirea. Recomandǎrile dietetice specifice diabetului zaharat tip 1 şi 2 nu sunt aplicabile celor cu CFRD. Complexitatea regimului zilnic pentru FC (substituţie enzimaticǎ, multiple medicaţii pentru boala respiratorie, vitamine) este agravatǎ de cerinţele pen tru CFRD. Tratamentul CFRD necesitǎ o echipǎ multi disciplinarǎ, iar insulina rǎmâne agentul farmacologic cel mai eficient.

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