TABLE OF CONTINENTS. PSYC1002 Notes. Neuroscience.2. Cognitive Processes Learning and Motivation. 37. Perception Mental Abilities..

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1 TABLE OF CONTINENTS Neuroscience.2 Cognitive Processes...21 Learning and Motivation. 37 Perception Mental Abilities.. 83 Abnormal Psychology

2 Topic 1: Neuroscience Outline 1. Gross anatomy of the nervous system 2. Functional organisation of the brain 3. Fundamentals of neurophysiology and neuropharmacology 4. Research methods in neuroscience 5. Sleep 6. Reward 7. Learning and memory 8. Language and lateralisation References: Chapter 4 biology of behaviour Lect 1+2 : pg 87-90, pg Lect 3: pg Lect 4: pg Lect 6: pg LECT 1-3 Anatomy, physiology, neurochemistry of the nervous system The Brain and its components Basic Structure of the nervous system Three function of the brain: o controlling behaviour o process and retaining information we receive from the environment o regulating the body s physiological processes Major division of the nervous system o The brain: largest part of the nervous system and contains approximately 100 billion neural cells and about as many helper cells 2

3 PSYC1002 Notes o The spinal cord: long, thin structure attached to the base of the brain and running the length of the spinal column an interface between the brain and peripheral nervous system (directly connected to sensory, motor and autonomic nerves) o The central nervous system communicates with the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system, which consists of nerves: bundles of fibres that transmit information to and from the central nervous system Sensory information is conveyed from sensory organs to the brain and spinal cord i.e. information from the head and neck region (eyes, ears, nose, tongue) reaches the brain through the cranial nerves i.e. information from rest of the body reaches the spinal cord and ultimately the brain through the spinal nerves The brain also controls muscles, glands and internal organs by sending messages to these structures through these nerves 3

4 Protection of the Central nervous system and the peripheral system (3) Bone: brain sits inside the skull and the spinal cord is surrounded by a series of vertebrae Meninges (inside bone structures): flexible sheet made from 3 membranes (dura mater, arachnoid membrane, pia mater) between the bone and nervous tissue o Within the layers of the meninges is a channel referred to as the subarachnoid space and within this space the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) runs. This fluid is constantly recycled through the meninges and spaces within the brain ventricles. The brain in effect floats in the CSF so that it greatly reduces the net weight of the brain on the base of the skull as to protect the brain from blows to the head Blood brain barrier: blood vessels supplying blood to CNS o The supply of blood to the brain is a relatively closed system which most substances cannot pass from the blood to the brain (i.e. compared to pores in the capillaries to supply blood to other parts of the body) o Example of effects of drugs: heroin being smuggled into the brain and becomes converted into morphine Anatomy of the Brain The ventricular system: is a set of four interconnected cavities (ventricles) in the brain, where the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced. The brain consists of three main parts: the brain stem, the cerebellum and the cerebral hemisphere [and the thalamus] 4

5 1. The brain stem: divided into the hind brain, mid brain and between brain called diencephalon and primarily control of physiological functions and automatic behaviours o The hind brain: an extension of the spinal cord contains networks of neurons that constitute centres for the control of vital functions such as breathing and blood pressure o The mid brain: contains groups of neurons that project up to cerebral hemispheres to mediate functions such as sleep, attention or reward o The Diencephalon: divided into the thalamus and the hypothalamus The thalamus à relays impulses from all sensory system to the cerebral cortex, which inturn sends messages back to the thalamus The hypothalamus à controls functions such as eating and drinking and regulates release of hormones in sexual functions Wrapped around the thalamus is the limbic system à controls emotion and memory of experiences you had 2. Cerebellum (at the roof of the hind brain): plays a role in control and timing of movement especially rapid and skilled movement 3. Cerebral hemisphere: ((largest and most complex part of the human brain) consists of a core, basal ganglia and an extensive but thin sheet of neuron making up the grey matter of the cerebral cortex o Basal ganglia: play a central role in the initiation and control of movement o Cerebral cortex: required for voluntary actions, language, speech and many higher functions such as thinking and remembering Packed into a limited space of the skull, the cerebral cortex is thrown into folds to enable a larger surface area for the sheets of neuron than would otherwise be possible 90% of the cereberal cortex makes up the neurocortex which contains 4 different lobes 5

6 Frontal lobe: planning and many executive functions i.e. motor control (muscles), expressive language, reasoning, higher level cognition and motor skills. It is positioned at the front portion of the brain Parietal lobe (touch): understanding space and how to move in it i.e. processing the information sent to the brain by the tactile senses like pain, pressure and touch Temporal lobe (ears): memory and language i.e. forming memories and processing the sounds being recorded by the ears (auditory processing) Occipital lobe (eyes): interpreting the information being sent to the brain by the eyes 6

7 The Peripheral nervous system o 1. Sensory nerves: inputs to CNS from sensory organs (eye, ears, vestibular apparatus, nose, tongue) o 2. Motor nerves: output from CNS to muscles o 3. Autonomic nervous system: controls many non-voluntary bodily functions (not consciously control) ie. Digestion 2 branches: Sympathetic (prepares for action i.e. increase blood pressure) vs Parasympathetic (involves in rest and i.e. decrease blood pressure) Uses same neurotransmitters as brain (Ach and NA) o 4. Enteric Nervous System (ENS) Half a billion neurons located in the guts (wall of the gastrointestinal tract) Interacts with the brain via sympathetic and parasympathetic NS but can functionally independently (2 nd brain) Controls digestive activity and senses physical/chemical conditions of gut Uses same neurotransmitter as the brain Comparative Neuroanatomy Nervous system almost a defining feature of animals: o Sea sponge is the only member of the animal kingdom without a nervous system Nervous system has more complex organisation in insects: o Clutters of neurons ( ganglia ) forming cord or brain o Some specialisation of neurons (i.e. motor vs sensory) Vertebrates have separation between PNS and CNS (cord and brain) Among vertebrates, large differences in relative size of different regions of brain, reflecting complexity of behaviour o Large increase in size of forebrain across vertebrates o Appearance (and enlargement) of neuro-cortex in mammals The anatomy and physiology of neurons (understanding how neuron works) Neurons: elements of the nervous systems that bring sensory information to the brain, store memories, reach decisions and control the activity of muscles 7

8 o Dendrites: tree like growth attached to the body of a neural cell, function principally to receive messages to neurons o Soma: or cell body is the largest part of the neuron and contains the mechanisms that control the metabolism and maintenance of the cell o Nerve fibre (Axon): carries messages away from the soma towards the cells with the neuron communicates (these messages called action potentials, consists of brief changes in electrical charge of the axons) o Terminal buttons: secrete a chemical called neurotransmitter whenever an action potential is sent down the axon which effects the activity of the other cells with which the neuron communicates o Myelin: part protein and part fat whose role is to insulate the axon from one another and thus to prevent the scrambling of messages Neurons are covered in a lipid (fatty) membrane is semi-permeable and is electrically charged o Allowing the neuron to control the concentration of positively and negatively charged ions inside it The Excitable Axon: The action potential o An action potential is an abrupt, short lived reversal in the electrical charge of an axon 8

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