Ethnic Differences in Burnout, Coping, and Intervention Acceptability Among Childcare Professionals

Transcription

1 Ethnic Differences in Burnout, Coping, and Intervention Acceptability Among Childcare Professionals Garret D. Evans N. Elizabeth Bryant Julie Sarno Owens Kelly Koukos University of Florida ABSTRACT: This study examined ethnic differences in burnout, coping strategies, and intervention acceptability in childcare professionals. Predictors of burnout also were examined. Participants were 131 (82 Caucasian-American (CA); 49 African-American (AA)) female childcare professionals. Participants completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), the Coping Orientations to Problems Experienced (COPE) Scale, and an intervention acceptability questionnaire. AA participants reported higher levels of depersonalization and emotional exhaustion than did CA participants. CA and AA participants reported using significantly different coping strategies. AAs also were more willing to engage in stress management interventions than were CAs. Finally, ethnicity was predictive of depersonalization, whereas coping strategies were predictive of all three components of burnout. KEY WORDS: burnout; childcare; stress; coping; ethnicity; African-American; intervention; acceptability. The need for quality child care remains a paramount concern for American families as the rates of maternal and dual caregiver employment continue to surge (U.S. Department of Labor, 2003). Clearly, one of the most important avenues for bettering the status of professional childcare lies in improving the training, skills and expertise of professional childcare workers. High staff turnover is a critical dilemma facing the child care industry. High turnover results in less stability in childcaregiver relationships and in the hiring of less qualified personnel simply to fill staffing needs, both of which ultimately result in lower quality of care. It is estimated that one in three to one in five childcare Correspondence should be directed to Garret D. Evans, Departments of Family, Youth & Community Sciences, National Rural Behavioral Health Center, and Clinical & Health Psychology, Florida, USA; gdevans@mail.ifas.ufl.edu. Child & Youth Care Forum, 33(5), October 2004 Ó 2004 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 349

2 350 Child & Youth Care Forum teachers leave their centers each year (Child Care Bureau, 1996; Seiderman, 1978). Contributors to this dilemma include dissatisfaction with low wages, high child-to-staff ratios, poor perceived professional status, and long or unstable work hours. Prolonged exposure to these and other chronic, stable, and stressful work conditions appear to leave childcare professionals particularly vulnerable to a psychological phenomenon called burnout (Maslach & Pines, 1977). Burnout The seminal studies of this phenomenon were conducted by Maslach and her colleagues (Maslach, 1982; Maslach & Jackson, 1981; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996; Maslach & Pines, 1977; Pines & Maslach, 1978). They define burnout as a multidimensional syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach & Pines, 1977). Emotional exhaustion includes feelings of fatigue, loss of energy and loss of emotional resources, all of which are associated with a reduction in energy and quality of work (i.e., the provider s ability to care for others) (McMullen & Krantz, 1988). As providers become more stressed, they often lose idealism for the workplace and sympathy for the care recipients. This negative attitude and dehumanized perception of the care recipient is referred to as depersonalization. The professional suffering from burnout also becomes less effective in coping with the overpowering emotional stress of the job, feeling helpless and inadequate (Maslach & Pines, 1977; McMullen & Kranz, 1988). Perceptions of competence and recognition of one s achievement in the workplace decline. Given these characteristics, it is almost certain that professional burnout negatively affects the quality of care provided to children in day care centers. A review of the literature on burnout in childcare providers (Goelman & Guo, 1998) indicates that multiple factors contribute to burnout. The most common contributors are low wages and poor benefit packages (Blau, 1990; Modigliani, 1986; Stremmel, Benson, & Powell, 1993; Whitebook, Howes, Darrah, & Friedman, 1982), ambiguity in job description (Manlove, 1994), poor communication among staff members (Manlove, 1994; Maslach & Pine, 1977; Stremmel et al., 1993), and personality factors such as locus of control, self-esteem, and coping styles (Fuqua & Conture, 1986; McMullen & Krantz, 1988).Additional personal characteristics that are associated with increased risk for burnout include: lower levels of education, non-married status, (Maslach, 1982; Thornburg, Townley, & Crompton, 1998), less experience in childcare, (Cherniss, 1980; Freudenberger, 1975;

3 Evans, Bryant, Owens, and Koukos 351 Maslach, 1982), and lower caregiver age (Townley & Thornburg, 1986). Furthermore, lower self-esteem and a learned helplessness attributional style (McMullen & Krantz, 1988) are associated with higher levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and an external locus of control is associated with lower levels of personal accomplishment (Fuqua & Couture, 1986). Additional workplace characteristics associated with burnout include lacking authority over administrative decisions (Fuqua & Conture, 1996), feeling insufficiently supported by staff, long hours of direct contact with children, high child-to-staff ratios (Maslach & Pines, 1977; Pines & Maslach, 1978), and lack of clear performance feedback (Jorde-Bloom, 1982). Coping Due to the apparent high prevalence of burnout in the childcare profession, examination of coping strategies used by childcare workers to manage stress and burnout is warranted. Coping has been defined as the process of executing a response to a threat (Lazarus, 1966). Folkman and Lazarus (1980, 1985) suggested two general types of coping. The first is problem-focused coping; the person finds a method for solving stress at its source. The second is emotion-focused coping; the person feels that the source of the stress must somehow be tolerated, and he/she aims efforts at managing or lessening the emotional discomfort associated with the situation. Carver, Scheier, and Weintraub (1989) further delineated strategies subsumed under these two broad styles of coping. Those within the problem-focused domain include: active coping (taking steps to try to eliminate or rectify the stressor), planning (thinking about how to cope with the stressor), suppression of competing activities (putting other tasks aside and trying to avoid becoming distracted by other events in order to deal with the stressor), restraint coping (holding oneself back until the appropriate time to act on the stressor), and seeking instrumental social support (seeking assistance, advice, or information). Strategies within the emotion-focused domain include: seeking emotional and social support (seeking sympathy, understanding, or moral support), focusing on and venting emotions (concentrating on the distress one is experiencing and venting associated feelings), positive reinterpretation through growth (construing a stressful situation in positive terms, such as an opportunity for personal growth), acceptance (accepting the reality of the stressful situation), and turning to religion as a source of comfort (Carver et al. 1989).

4 352 Child & Youth Care Forum In addition, Carver et al. (1989) proposed a third style of coping; avoidant coping, which was integrated into a self-regulatory model of stress and coping (Carver & Scheier, 1999). Avoidant coping strategies sometimes are viewed as less adaptive methods of coping. Denial (pretending the stressor is not present or that it is not causing any significant distress), mental disengagement (distracting oneself from thinking about the goal with which the stressor is interfering), and behavioral disengagement (giving up on the goals with which the stressor is interfering) are examples of avoidant coping strategies. Burnout Ethnic Differences As mentioned previously, numerous studies on the construct of burnout have been conducted. Researchers have examined many factors that appear to contribute significantly to burnout among childcare professionals. However, ethnic differences in burnout, particularly in childcare settings, have not been examined. Interestingly, extant studies have, for the most part, failed even to report the ethnic compositions of their samples. Examining African Americans (AAs) response to job stress is important for several reasons. First, a greater percentage of AA women than Caucasian-American (CA) women are in the paid labor force (Granrose & Cunningham, 1988; Harrison, 1989) and AA women tend to spend a greater percentage of their lives working as compared to CA women (Belgrave, 1988) and earn, on average, 16% less than CA women (U.S. Department of Labor, 2003). Second, AA women experience double jeopardy in the workforce, as they cope with both sexism and racism (Richie, 1992, p. 97). Third, AA woman, despite demonstrating higher academic achievement, on average, tend to have lower perceptions of work-related competence and lower job-related self-efficacy than AA men (Hall, Mays, & Allen, 1984). Thus, the double jeopardy may be particularly devastating for these women. Finally, there is some evidence that lower socio-economic status is associated with use of less effective coping strategies (Ell & Nishimoto, 1989; Flynt & Wood, 1989). Richie (1992) suggests that this phenomenon may put AA woman in a situation of triple jeopardy (p. 105). Burnout studies examining differences by ethnicity are sparse; however, some studies have examined ethnic differences in stress levels independent of gender. Findings from these studies are

5 Evans, Bryant, Owens, and Koukos 353 equivocal. AAs, as a group, have lower levels of education, higher rates of poverty, and higher rates of unemployment than do CAs, all of which may contribute to higher rates of overall stress in this group (Allen & Majidi-Ahi, 1989; McLoyd, 1990). Furthermore, Ulbrich, Warheit, and Zimmerman (1989) reported that socioeconomic status (SES) interacts with race to increase psychological symptoms of distress (p.131). Across genders, AAs with lower SES were more vulnerable to the impact of undesirable events than were CAs with lower SES (Ulbrich et al., 1989). In contrast, Brown (1998) reported that when socio-demographic factors were controlled, differences in perceived levels of stress for AA and CA women were not significant. Given the inconsistencies in this literature, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding ethnic differences in burnout and stress. However, because ethnic differences in burnout have been virtually neglected, and because there is some evidence suggesting that ethnic differences exist, examination of levels of burnout in diverse ethnic populations is warranted. Coping Ethnic differences also are expected with regard to methods of coping with stress and burnout. Some studies suggest that CAs use more effective coping strategies than AAs (Greco, Brickman, & Routh, 1996), whereas other studies suggest the opposite (Pickett, Vraniak, Cook, & Cohler, 1993). Despite these conflicting results, one finding pervades most studies: AAs use distinct and more diverse coping strategies than do CAs (Richie, 1992, p. 103). First, AAs as compared to CAs have a variety of different individuals who make up their social support network (Anderson, 1991; Flynt & Wood, 1989; Munsch & Wampler, 1993). Second, AAs are more likely than CAs to use prayer and religious activities as coping methods (Griffith, Young, & Smith, 1984) and are more likely to view their religion as a source of comfort in times of stress (Blaine & Crocker, 1995; Evans, 1997). Faith and church participation may allow AAs to have more optimism in stressful situations and a stronger and more readily available support network. Third, although problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies are used by AAs, it has been postulated that the full repertoire of culturally-specific coping behaviors characteristic of this population is not adequately represented by the conventional (i.e., Western or Eurocentric) paradigm (Utsey, Adams, & Bolden, 2000, p. 195). The African worldview maintains a belief in harmony among the physical,

6 354 Child & Youth Care Forum metaphysical, and communal realms and this notion of harmony is manifested in the coping strategies of AAs. In developing an Africultural Coping Systems Inventory (ACSI), Utsey et al. (2000) found four factors for AA coping strategies: Cognitive/Emotional Debriefing, Spiritual-Centered Coping, Collective Coping, and Ritual-Centered Coping. These four factors are distinctly different from those in conventional coping models. It has been suggested that AA individuals are more flexible and use a wider variety of strategies because they have faced more variety and diversity in significant stressors. Intervention Acceptability If an individual s current coping methods are not effective in decreasing levels of stress and burnout, an intervention aimed at teaching stress management may be of benefit. However, if a particular stress management intervention is not acceptable to the individual, he or she may be non-compliant with the treatment, or may choose not to participate at all. For example, interventions that are perceived as stigmatizing are not likely to be used. Hall and Robertson (1998) proposed that a person s attitudes about the acceptability of an intervention should be considered by mental health care professionals as they design and implement treatment plans. Mental health professions should view patients as consumers of health care, and who will shop for interventions consistent with their preferences. Thus, in order to design interventions to prevent and reduce burnout in childcare professionals, examination of the acceptability of possible stress-management interventions for this population is warranted. Furthermore, because AAs and CAs are likely to find different interventions more acceptable than others, examination of ethnic differences in intervention acceptability also is warranted. Specific Aims Based on the review of the literature, the specific aims of the study are as follows: (1) To examine ethnic differences in the levels of burnout in childcare professionals. (2) To examine ethnic differences in the types of coping responses of childcare professionals. (3) To examine ethnic differences in attitudes regarding the acceptability of various stress-management interventions.

7 Evans, Bryant, Owens, and Koukos 355 (4) To identify variables that are predictive of burnout and coping responses. Participants Method Participants were 131 female childcare professionals ranging in age from 17 to 67 (M ¼ 40.78, SD ¼ 11.69). Participants were professionals currently employed in four counties in North and Central Florida who attended inservice training provided by University of Florida Cooperative Extension Agents. Participant characteristics are shown in Table 1. Materials Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). The MBI is a 22-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure the three aspects of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment) in individuals employed in educational settings (Maslach et al., 1996). Questions are responded to using a 7-point Likert scale (ranging from Never to Every day ) indicating how often a given job-related feeling applies. The three conceptually-distinct scales have acceptable internal consistency, with Cronbach s alpha coefficients ranging from.72 to.90 (Maslach et al., 1996). Previously defined cutoff scores (Maslach et al., 1996) were used to determine low, moderate and high levels of each burnout component (emotional exhaustion: low 16 to high 27; depersonalization: low 6 to high 13; personal accomplishment: low 39 to high 31). Coping Orientations to Problems Experienced (COPE). The COPE is a 60-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure the use of various coping behaviors in stressful situations (Carver et al., 1989). Questions are responded to using a 4-point Likert scale (ranging from Not at All to A Lot ) indicating how often a given coping behavior is used. The COPE contains 13 conceptually distinct scales consisting of four items each. These scales are grouped into three broad theoretical domains: problem-focused coping (active coping, planning, suppression of competing activities, restraint, seeking instrumental social support); emotion-focused coping (seeking emotional support, positive reinterpretation through growth, acceptance, religious coping, focus on and venting of emotions); and avoidant coping strategies (denial,

8 356 Child & Youth Care Forum Table 1 Participant Characteristics by Race (N = 131) Characteristic Caucasian-American (N = 82) M (SD) African-American (N = 49) M (SD) Full Sample (N = 131) M (SD) Age (10.94) (12.74) (11.69) Number of Children Raised 2.42 (2.09) 2.45 (2.05) 2.43 (2.07) Hours Worked per Week (12.07) (15.46) (13.49) Years in Childcare (7.86) (10.17) (8.81) Family Income (in thousands) (23.40) (30.48) (26.35) N (%) N (%) N (%) Marital Status Married 58 (71%) ** 14 (29%) ** 72 (55%) Single, Never Married 12 (15%) 19 (39%) 31 (24%) Divorced/Widowed 12 (15%) 16 (33%) 28 (21%) Education High School or Less 54 (69%) 28 (68%) 82 (69%) Some College 21 (27%) 12 (29%) 37 (31%) Child Development Certified 45 (65%) 38 (93%) 83 (75%) Note: ** p <.001.

9 Evans, Bryant, Owens, and Koukos 357 behavioral disengagement, mental disengagement). For their theoretical interest, scales regarding substance use and the use of humor also are included in the measure. The COPE has acceptable internal consistency, with alpha coefficients ranging from.62 to.92 (with the exception of mental disengagement, which has an alpha coefficient of.45) (Carver et al., 1989). Intervention acceptability questionnaire. Designed specifically for this project, this questionnaire lists 15 stress management interventions. Participants rated, on a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from Not at all likely to Very likely ), how likely she would be to take part in such an activity. The 15 interventions range from informal interventions (e.g., talking with family and friends) to more formal interventions (e.g., psychotherapy, medication). Demographic information. Demographic information including age, gender, ethnicity, marital status, number of children raised, and level of education was obtained using a demographic information questionnaire. Employment-related information, including current employment status, income, hours worked per week, number of years in childcare, childcare-related certifications, and other related training also was obtained. Procedure Participants were recruited at an inservice training provided by University of Florida Cooperative Extension Agents. All attendees currently employed in the preschool childcare field were invited to participate in the study. Participants were given an overview of the purpose and procedures of the study and were asked to voluntarily participate by completing the questionnaires. Participants were reminded of their anonymity (i.e., that no identifying information would be asked of them) and were made aware that the study was independent of the inservice training (i.e., choosing not to participate in the study would not affect their training). Preliminary Analyses Results CA (N ¼ 82) and AA (N ¼ 49) groups were compared all demographic variables. The only significant difference between the two

10 358 Child & Youth Care Forum groups was that CA childcare professionals (71%) were more likely to be married than were AA childcare professionals (29%), (v 2 ¼ 22.02, p <.001). Incidence of Burnout The number (and percentages) of participants reporting low, moderate and high levels of each component of burnout (as measured by MBI subscales) are shown in Table 2. High levels of burnout are denoted by high emotional exhaustion, high depersonalization, and low personal accomplishment. Eighty percent of the sample reported experiencing low levels of personal accomplishment. Almost half of the sample (45%) reported moderate or high levels of emotional exhaustion. However, a relatively small proportion (14%) reported moderate or high levels of depersonalization. Two percent of the sample reported high levels of all three burnout components, whereas 11% of the sample reported moderate or high levels of all three burnout components. Ethnic Differences Burnout. To examine ethnic differences in burnout, a Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) test was conducted comparing CA and AA groups on the three MBI subscales. Means and standard deviations are shown in Table 3. The full model was marginally significant (F ¼ 2.18, p <.10). Univariate follow-up tests indicated that Table 2 Incidence of Low, Moderate, and High Levels of Burnout Components Low Moderate High Burnout Component N % N % N % Emotional Exhaustion Depersonalization Personal Accomplishment Note: Cutoff scores for each MBI subscale were previously established by Maslach et al. (1996), and are as follows: Emotional Exhaustion (low 16 to high 27), Depersonalization (low 6 to high 13), and Personal Accomplishment (low 39 to high 31).

11 Evans, Bryant, Owens, and Koukos 359 Table 3 Means and Standard Deviations for Burnout Components Burnout Component Caucasian-American (N = 77) M (SD) African-American (N = 45) M (SD) Group Main Effect (N = 122) M (SD) Emotional (11.46) (10.23) (11.12) * Exhaustion Depersonalization 3.12 (4.66) 5.27 (5.68) 3.91 (5.14) ** Personal Accomplishment (7.72) (7.56) (7.69) * p <.10; ** p <.05. AA participants endorsed significantly higher levels of depersonalization (p <.05) and marginally higher levels of emotional exhaustion (p <.10) than did CA participants. Coping. To examine ethnic differences in coping responses, a MANOVA was conducted comparing CA and AA groups on the COPE subscales. Means and standard deviations are shown in Table 4. The full model was significant (F ¼ 2.83, p <.01). Univariate follow-up tests indicated that AAs were more likely than CAs to endorse the use of positive reinterpretation through growth (p <.05), religious coping (p <.01), and denial (p <.01) as coping strategies. CAs were more likely than AAs to report using acceptance as a coping strategy (p <.01). Intervention acceptability. To examine ethnic differences in treatment acceptability, a MANOVA was conducted comparing CA and AA groups on the intervention acceptability items. The full model was significant (F ¼ 3.93, p <.001). Univariate follow-up tests indicated that, overall, AA participants were more willing than CA participants to engage stress management interventions (see Table 5). Indeed, AAs reported significantly higher acceptability ratings than CAs on 7 of 15 interventions. Specifically, AAs reported the following interventions as more acceptable than CAs: taking medication (p <.05), talking to a physician (p <.05), using a work-based stress management program (p <.001), using a non-work-based stress management program (p <.05), praying (p <.01), talking to a pastor or priest (p <.001), learning how to meditate (p <.01).

12 360 Child & Youth Care Forum Table 4 Means and Standard Deviations for Coping Strategies (Higher scores indicate greater endorsement of coping strategy) Coping Strategies Caucasian-American (N = 76) M ( SD) African-American (N = 47) M ( SD) Group Main Effect (N = 123) M ( SD) Problem-Focused Coping Active Coping (2.32) (2.18) (2.28) Planning (4.31) (2.17) (3.64) Suppression 9.83 (2.28) (2.30) (2.29) of Activities Restraint (2.30) (2.29) (2.28) Instrumental Social Support (2.79) (2.51) (2.68) Emotion-Focused Coping Emotional (3.03) (2.67) (2.91) Social Support Positive (2.47) (1.67) (2.23) * Reinterpretation (2.58) 9.94 (1.97) (2.44) ** Acceptance Religious Coping (3.37) (2.33) (3.10) ** Venting Emotions 9.79 (2.09) 9.34 (3.04) 9.62 (2.49) Avoidant Coping Denial 5.59 (1.94) 6.68 (2.14) 6.01 (2.08) ** Mental 8.41 (2.14) 8.72 (2.31) 8.53 (2.20) Disengagement Behavioral Disengagement 6.57 (1.85) 6.66 (2.28) 6.60 (2.02) Additional Coping Strategies Humor 9.01 (2.88) 9.15 (6.45) 9.07 (4.56) Substance Use 4.51 (2.49) 4.85 (1.98) 4.64 (2.31) * p <.05; ** p <.01. Predicting Burnout Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the usefulness of ethnicity, other demographic characteristics, and coping strategies in predicting burnout in childcare professionals. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted on each

13 Evans, Bryant, Owens, and Koukos 361 Table 5 Means and Standard Deviations for Intervention Acceptability (Higher scores indicate greater acceptance) Interventions Caucasian-American (N = 73) M (SD) African-American (N = 45) M (SD) Group Main Effect (N = 118) M (SD) Talking to Family/Friends 4.07 (1.11) 4.42 (1.06) 4.20 (1.10) Prayer 3.96 (1.38) 4.64 (0.68) 4.22 (1.21)** Exercise 3.53 (1.40) 3.33 (1.38) 3.46 (1.39) Talking to Pastor/Priest 2.95 (1.60) 3.96 (1.19) 3.33 (1.53)** Videos/Reading About Stress Management 2.44 (1.39) 2.76 (1.28) 2.56 (1.36) Talking to Physician 2.33 (1.34) 2.91 (1.50) 2.55 (1.43)* Work-Based Stress Management Program 2.08 (1.20) 3.31 (1.38) 2.55 (1.40)** Non-Work Stress Management Program 2.29 (1.27 ) 2.91 (1.33) 2.53 (1.33)* Meditation 2.18 (1.38) 3.04 (1.41) 2.51 (1.45)** Writing in a Journal 2.47 (1.43) 2.38 (1.37) 2.43 (1.40) Relaxation Training 2.27 (1.46) 2.47 (1.32) 2.35 (1.40) Group Therapy 1.88 (1.19) 2.11 (1.28) 1.97 (1.23) Individual Psychotherapy 1.68 (1.09) 1.89 (1.17) 1.76 (1.12) Medication 1.49 (1.00) 2.00 (1.28) 1.69 (1.14)* Seeing a Hypnotist 1.18 (0.59) 1.20 (0.69) 1.19 (0.63) * p <.05; ** p. < 01.

14 362 Child & Youth Care Forum subscale of the MBI (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment). Ethnicity was entered on the first step of each regression analysis. A group of additional demographic variables (i.e., age, marital status, and hours worked per week) was entered on the second step of each analysis. Composite scores representing the three types of coping (i.e., problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidant) and two additional coping strategies (i.e., substance use and humor) were entered on the third step of each regression analysis. These predictors were entered as consecutive blocks in order to examine the additive influence of the subsequent predictors (see Table 6 for regression statistics). Emotional exhaustion. Ethnicity was a marginally significant (p <.07) predictor of emotional exhaustion, accounting for 3% of the variance. When added to the model, the additional demographic variables were significantly predictive (p <.001) of emotional exhaustion, accounting for 15% of the variance beyond that accounted for by ethnicity. This significant finding was primarily accounted for by hours worked per Table 6 Statistics for Each Step in Regression Analyses Predicting Three Components of Burnout Emotional Exhaustion Depersonalization Personal Accomplishment Beta R 2 D Beta R 2 D Beta R 2 D Step 1: Ethnicity *.04 * ) Step 2: Demographics.15 ** Age ).14 ) Marital Status ).15 Hours/Week.31 ** ).00 ).07 Step 3: Coping.08 *.12 *.17 ** Strategies Problem-Focused.00 ) Emotion-Focused ).05 ) * Avoidant.30 **.37 ** ).32 ** Total R 2.26 **.20 **.24 ** * p <.05; ** p <.01.

15 Evans, Bryant, Owens, and Koukos 363 week. Finally, coping strategies (p <.05) also were significant predictors of emotional exhaustion, accounting for an additional 8% of the variance. This significant finding was accounted for by avoidant coping strategies. Betas indicated that AA status was a marginal predictor of higher rates of emotional exhaustion. More clear evidence suggests that higher hours worked per week and greater use of avoidant coping strategies are associated with higher levels of emotional exhaustion. The full regression model accounted for 26% of the variance in emotional exhaustion. Depersonalization. Ethnicity was a significant predictor (p <.05) of depersonalization, accounting for 4% of the variance. The additional demographic variables were not significant predictors of depersonalization. Coping strategies were significant predictors (p <.05) of depersonalization, accounting for 12% of the variance beyond that accounted for by ethnicity and the additional demographic variables. This significant finding was accounted for by avoidant coping strategies. Betas indicated that greater use of avoidant coping strategies was associated with higher levels of depersonalization, with AA participants reporting higher levels of this burnout component than CA participants. The full regression model accounted for 20% of the variance in depersonalization (avoidant coping strategies was the only variable that remained significant in the final model). Personal accomplishment. Ethnicity and the additional demographic variables were not significant predictors of reported levels of personal accomplishment. Coping strategies, however, were significant predictors (p <.01) of personal accomplishment, accounting for 17% of the variance in this component of burnout. This significant finding was accounted for by emotion-focused and avoidant coping strategies. While ethnicity and demographic variables did not predict levels of personal accomplishment, these findings suggest that greater use of emotion-focused coping was associated with higher levels of personal accomplishment, whereas, greater use of avoidant coping was associated with lower levels of personal accomplishment. The full model accounted for 24% of the variance. Discussion The purpose of the study was to examine ethnic differences in burnout, coping, and intervention acceptability between CA and AA childcare professionals and to determine which variables best predict

16 364 Child & Youth Care Forum the presence of each burnout component. The literature suggests that multiple factors contribute to the development and maintenance of burnout; however, to date, the relationship among ethnicity, coping strategies, intervention acceptability, and burnout has received minimal attention. Incidence of Burnout The results of this study present a striking picture regarding rates of burnout among childcare professionals. Perhaps most troubling is the finding that 80% of childcare professionals reported low levels of personal accomplishment. Unfortunately, other studies examining burnout in childcare professionals rarely report the percentages of participants falling in each burnout classification. Therefore, it is difficult to determine the consistency of this finding across studies. Fuqua and Couture (1986), reported mean MBI scores of childcare professionals that were two to three times greater across all domains than those reported here. Their findings suggest an incidence of burnout that is at least equal to, and likely greater than, that reported in this study. Sears, Urizar and Evans (2000) found that 51% of Cooperative Extension professionals experienced low levels of personal accomplishment, as measured by the MBI. Taken together, these findings combine to suggest that (a) experiencing low personal accomplishment may be the most common of the three components of burnout and (b) childcare professionals may be particularly vulnerable to this component of burnout. It is less surprising that 45% of our participants reported high levels of emotional exhaustion. The majority of respondents are full-time childcare professionals who also are raising children of their own. Additionally, almost half (45%) are unmarried. The physical demands of managing a full-time (or close to it) job, raising children and managing family finances on a limited income are likely contributors to the moderate-to-high rates of emotional exhaustion, particularly when considering that our contained working women who often must balance so many personal and professional demands. A much smaller portion (14%) of childcare workers reported high rates of depersonalization. However, given that these professionals work with children on a daily basis, this finding is concerning. Other research has demonstrated that child care professionals experiencing high levels of depersonalization are more likely to also experience lower self-esteem and greater learned helplessness (McMullen & Krantz, 1988). Through these diminished self-appraisals combined with negative attitudes toward, and dehumanizing perceptions of, the children for

17 Evans, Bryant, Owens, and Koukos 365 whom they provide care, childcare professionals who are experiencing depersonalizing characteristics of burnout are likely to view the children and family members as irritants rather than as individual who need assistance, ultimately diminishing the quality of care provided. Ethnicity and Coping in the Expression of Burnout In the absence of studies examining ethnic differences in burnout, this study contributes significantly to the literature, as it is the first to illustrate the relationship among ethnicity, coping strategies and the expression of burnout in childcare workers. The MANOVA and regression results indicate that while ethnicity is predictive of some aspects of burnout, coping strategies play a stronger role in the development and maintenance of this phenomenon. The MANOVA results suggest that AA childcare professionals may be more vulnerable to experiencing the depersonalizing aspects of burnout than their CA counterparts. However, the regression analysis suggests that ethnicity plays a lesser role in predicting depersonalization than the use of avoidant coping strategies. When entered alone, ethnicity accounted for only 4% of the variance on depersonalization while coping strategies accounted for an additional 12% of the variance. Therefore, both AA and CA childcare professionals who report using avoidant coping strategies are at greater risk for the depersonalizing aspects of burnout than those who do not. The MANOVA results also suggest that AA childcare professionals may be slightly more vulnerable to experiencing emotional exhaustion than are CA childcare professionals. However, once again, when demographic and coping style variables were considered, ethnicity failed to significantly predict emotional exhaustion. Not surprisingly, higher numbers of hours worked per week and avoidant coping styles were related to higher emotional exhaustion. These findings are consistent with previous research. Maslach and colleagues (Maslach & Pines, 1977; Pines & Maslach, 1978) have consistently found strong positive relationships between the number of hours of direct contact with children and burnout. Carver et al. (1989) reported a positive relationship between use of avoidant coping strategies and trait anxiety and a negative relationship between avoidant coping and optimism, internal locus of control, self-esteem and hardiness. Finally, ethnicity was not related to perceptions of personal accomplishment in this sample. Once again, coping strategies were far more predictive of this variable with emotion-focused coping related to higher levels of personal accomplishment and avoidant coping related to lower levels. It is interesting to note that AAs and CAs differed

18 366 Child & Youth Care Forum significantly in the types of emotion-focused coping strategies. AAs were more likely to use positive reinterpretation through growth and religious coping, whereas CAs were more likely to use acceptance and venting of emotions. AAs greater use of religious coping is consistent with previous research (Blaine & Crocker, 1995; Evans, 1997; Griffith et al., 1984). Regardless of the emotion-focused strategy used, it is possible that the social activities fundamental to this style of coping create a buffer against perceptions of low personal accomplishment. The act of sharing one s frustrations and telling one s story, are important components of formal and informal social support interventions. It is possible that these activities help to normalize the frustrations of professional childcare workers and build a sense of camaraderie and mutual support that sustain perceptions of personal accomplishment. Conversely, the finding that avoidant coping strategies are related to decreased perceptions of personal accomplishment is consistent with previous findings and provides further confirmation that coping strategies that are specifically designed to avoid or disengage from stressors are relatively less effective when battling stress and burnout (Carver et al., 1989). It is possible that avoidant strategies only delay the inevitable psychological anguish associated with this phenomenon. Given that coping strategies account for variance in burnout beyond that accounted for by ethnicity and demographic variables, it is important not to overstate the role of ethnicity in the expression of burnout. Rather, it is seems that the demands of balancing work and family responsibilities combined with non-assertive attempts at coping are likely contributors to these subtypes of burnout in childcare workers. Professional childcare is an industry predominately occupied by women, and one in which wages are roughly equal across employees. Therefore, the potential effects of double jeopardy and/or triple jeopardy (Richie, 1992) for explaining the differing manifestations of burnout across our sample may be lower than in professions that include by both genders and multiple levels of job status. A note about the relationship between socio-economic status and ethnicity is in order. Cross cultural studies of constructs such as burnout often produce results suggesting racial/ethnic differences that may be as related to differences in socio-economic status as they are to ethnicity. An examination of this data suggests that these results appear to be less vulnerable to such effects. While there is trend toward higher family incomes among CA childcare professionals as compared to their AA peers, this difference is not statistically significant. Further, there is no difference between these subsamples in terms of educational status, except to note a non-significant trend

19 Evans, Bryant, Owens, and Koukos 367 toward higher rates of Child Development Certification among AA childcare professionals. Implications for Interventions These findings have implications for interventions designed to reduce occupational burnout in the childcare industry. Interventions focusing on increasing levels of healthy communication, emotional support and the use of informal and formal coping networks are likely to be more effective in reducing burnout than strategies that encourage employees to delay attempts to solve problems, think about more pleasant issues and otherwise distract themselves from work-related stressors. Furthermore, the childcare workers in our sample heavily endorsed interventions that utilize existing networks of friends, clergy, and other less formal or burnout-specific activities such as exercise. Perhaps these activities are preferred because they represent less intensive, effortful and stigmatizing approaches to burnout stress management that are easier to access than formalized curricula or therapies. Another important consideration relates to the perception of the individual childcare worker of their need for stress management activities/interventions. It is quite possible that the majority of childcare workers in this sample do not perceive themselves as in need of more intensive approaches to stress management. Thus, it is entirely logical to predict that many of the formal interventions should be endorsed less frequently. The authors encourage those interested in designing interventions for preventing burnout in the childcare workforce to focus on several of the strategies that received moderate levels of endorsement from this sample, such as work-based stress management programs, journal writing and relaxation training. The use of work-based stress management programs has been validated as an effective means for improving worker satisfaction, reducing absenteeism rates and improving overall worker performance (see Quick, Quick, Nelson, & Hurrell for review, 1997). Furthermore, the integration of didactic and experiential instruction of specific coping strategies with the opportunity for emotion-focused communication among groups of co-workers will likely reduce all negative components associated with burnout. Specifically, acquiring more effective coping skills will likely reduce psychological exhaustion, and provide opportunities to gain a sense of personal mastery or accomplishment. Opportunities for emotion-focused communication will likely normalize, and hopefully minimize, their feelings of frustration while increasing sensitivity to the needs of the individual children for whom they are providing care. Finally, childcare directors

20 368 Child & Youth Care Forum who encourage the adaptation of emotion- and problem-focused coping strategies through work-based programs not only send a strong message that the professional satisfaction of their employees is an important objective, but are likely to improve the quality of childcare offered in their facility by reducing the numbing effects of burnout on the interactions among staff, children, and parents. Childcare administrators may also wish to consider several strategies for altering the workplace environment in order to better combat job-related burnout. It is hard to engage in this conversation without first mentioning that low wages and long working hours are likely to be prime contributors to the high rates of burnout and turnover among child care workers. However, we recognize the current economic realties of this profession and choose to focus on less obvious, yet still potent strategies for combating job-related burnout. Fostering a sense of personal control (mastery) and achievement should be considered as specific goals for reducing burnout. Reducing role ambiguity by stating and re-affirming specific job-related tasks, tracking successful performance on those tasks and rewarding successful completion is often considered a key prevention burnout strategy. By encouraging staff members to participate in task forces and committees designed to assess quality assurance issues in the center and to make and enact recommendations, administrators allow child care professionals to express mastery and achievement in the workplace. These activities engender a sense of responsibility among staff members for solving both the common and uncommon problems that confront the staff and move them squarely into active, problem-solving coping strategies. Directors are also encouraged to host workshops for continuing education credits on-site and to have staff members present information from workshops or readings that they have recently encountered. These strategies not only improve staff education and lead to better child care practices, but they ease the time-burdens on employees seeking continuing education, underline their role as a child care professional, and offer them an opportunity for creativity and public recognition of their specific expertise. They key notion here is to present childcare workers with a vision for their professional future that includes educational and professional achievement, recognition for their progress and a sense of self- and community-respect for their efforts. Finally, the use of flex-schedules, allowing quality professionals to choose to work part-time, and building in extended breaks from the workplace (several weeks or months, if possible) may be an effective strategy for helping come child care professionals escape burnout due to the ongoing strain of balancing personal and professional responsibilities.

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