Children in Need and Blood borne Viruses: HIV and Hepatitis

Transcription

1 Children in Need and Blood borne Viruses: HIV and Hepatitis

2 Children in Need and Blood borne Viruses: HIV and Hepatitis

3 READER INFORMATION Policy HR/Workforce Management Planning Clinical Estates Performance IM&T Finance Partnership Working Document Purpose Good Practice Guidance ROCR Ref: Gateway Ref: 3766 Title Author Children in need and blood borne viruses: HIV and hepatitis Department of Health/General Health Protection Publication Date 5 November 2004 Target Audience Circulation List Description Cross Ref Superseded Docs Action required Timing Contact Details PCT CEs, NHS Trusts CEs, SHA CEs, Care Trusts CEs, Medical Directors, Directors of PH, Directors of Nursing, GPs, Local Authority CEs, Directors of Social Services, Regional Directors of Public Health, Consultants in Communicable Disease Control. Voluntary Organisations, NHSFTs for information only. This document replaces guidance on prevention and testing in Children and HIV Guidance for local Authorities (1992) and includes advice about hepatitis B and C. Subjects covered include preventing blood borne virus transmission, testing for bloodborne viruses and useful sources of information and advice. N/A Consultation paper Guidance on children in need and blood borne viruses: HIV and Hepatitis (January 2002) N/A N/A Gerry Robb General Health Protection Room 631B Skipton House 80 London Road, London SE1 6LH For recipient use Crown copyright 2004 First published November 2004 Produced by COI Communications for the Department of Health The text of this document may be produced without formal permission or charge for personal or in house use.

4 Summary This document replaces guidance on prevention and testing in Children and HIV Guidance for Local Authorities (1992) and includes advice about hepatitis B and C. In summary, the document covers: the legislative framework; transmission of HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C; preventing blood borne virus transmission; testing for blood borne viruses and the provision of information, advice and support to children with blood borne virus infections and their families; useful sources of information and advice. It is intended to assist local authority social services departments, NHS and Primary Care Trusts and other local service providers in promoting and safeguarding the welfare of children in need in relation to blood borne viruses. The information may also be of interest to local education authorities. The guidance is for NHS Foundation Trusts information only. The emphasis within this guidance is on ensuring that the particular circumstances of children and their families at risk of, or affected by, blood borne viruses are addressed sensitively and positively. The aim is to encourage professionals involved with children and their families to work in partnership with them. iii

5 Contents Summary iii 1. Introduction 1 Purpose and scope of guidance 1 Blood borne viruses 3 Related Department of Health guidance 3 Local advice on blood borne viruses 4 2. Legislative framework: duties of local authorities under 5 the Children Act 1989, the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 and other legislation The Children Act The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act The Public Health (Control of Disease) Act The Carers and Disabled Children Act The Disability Discrimination Act The Race Relations (Amendment) Act The Human Rights Act Transmission of HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C 9 HIV 9 HIV in children 9 How is HIV spread? 10 Distribution of HIV 11 Hepatitis B 11 How is hepatitis B spread? 12 Hepatitis C 13 How is hepatitis C spread? 13 Are other body fluids infectious? 14 v

6 Contents 4. Preventing blood-borne virus transmission 15 Preventing mother to baby transmission 16 HIV 17 Hepatitis B 18 Hepatitis C 19 Preventing sexual transmission 20 Preventing transmission associated with injecting drug use 20 Cosmetic piercing (ear piercing and body piercing) and tattooing 22 Hygienic procedures to reduce the risk of blood-borne virus transmission 22 Local authority carers and staff 22 Local education authorities and proprietors providing services 23 in schools and in early years and childcare settings Spillages of blood or body fluids 24 Disposal of waste 25 Immunisation against hepatitis B 26 Immunisation of looked after children 27 Immunisation of foster carers 27 Intercountry adoption issues 29 Vaccines 30 Carers with blood-borne viruses 30 Information, training and advice 30 Post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV 31 Post-exposure prophylaxis for hepatitis B 31 Management of exposure to hepatitis C Testing for blood-borne viruses 33 Suggested indicators for considering testing 33 Advantages of testing 34 Disadvantages of testing 35 Consent to testing 35 Children aged 16 or Children under Parental responsibility 36 Information and advice for children with blood-borne virus infections and their families 37 Confidentiality 37 Local education authorities and proprietors providing services 39 in schools and in early years and childcare settings Child protection issues 40 Annex 1 Useful publications and sources of advice 41 vi

7 1. Introduction Purpose and scope of guidance 1.1 This guidance document is intended to build on existing relationships and assist local authority social services departments, NHS and Primary Care Trusts and other local service providers in promoting and safeguarding the welfare of children in need in relation to blood borne viruses. It will also be of use to local education authorities and proprietors providing services in schools and in early years and child care settings. It provides advice about preventing the transmission of blood borne viruses and the circumstances in which testing children in need for blood borne viruses might be considered. The guidance has been developed following consultation with local authorities and their representative organisations, health service interests, voluntary organisations and the Department of Health s Expert Advisory Group on AIDS and Advisory Group on Hepatitis. 1.2 The document replaces the guidance on testing in Children and HIV: Guidance for Local Authorities (1992), and includes advice about hepatitis B and C. The treatment and care of children infected or affected by HIV is a very specialised field. A Children s HIV National Network Review (CHINN) has been established, as part of the National Strategy for Sexual Health and HIV, to review current provision of services for children with HIV in England. CHINN will report its findings to the Department of Health and National Specialised Commissioning Group in 2004 with recommendations for the future structure of paediatric HIV specialist care, based on the model of managed service networks. 1.3 The emphasis within this guidance is on ensuring that the particular circumstances of children and their families at risk of, or affected by, blood borne viruses are addressed sensitively and positively. The aim should be for all professionals involved with children and families to work respectfully and in partnership, sharing information with them and explaining the implications of any decisions they need to make. In most circumstances, parents and carers want what is best for their children and are best placed to decide this. Working in partnership is therefore key to achieving optimum outcomes for most children. The National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services sets 1

8 Introduction standards for the NHS and social services for children to help ensure better access and smoother progression in services for children. 1.4 In accordance with the spirit of the Children Act 1989, the interests and welfare of the child must always remain the paramount consideration for all those working with children and their families in whatever capacity. Children who are infected with blood borne viruses will be affected in varying degrees. Some will be considerably incapacitated by their condition and may need continuing care and support to manage it and to enable them to live as normal a life as possible. Others will be much less affected. It is important that children with blood borne virus infections and their families are given appropriate information, advice and support. 1.5 When parents or carers are infected with these viruses, this can have a considerable impact on their children. When parents or carers are significantly affected by their illness, this may limit their capacity to care for their child or they may increasingly depend on the child for help and support. 1.6 When support is necessary, the needs of children affected by blood borne viruses should be assessed by local authorities in accordance with the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (2000) and arrangements made to address these needs. It is important that adult and children s services work closely together to ensure that they are meeting the needs of children and parents/carers. 1.7 The cultural, racial and linguistic backgrounds of children and families should be positively and specifically addressed when services are provided. For example, many of the families and children affected by HIV are from African communities, and it is particularly important that cultural considerations and views are fully appreciated and taken into account. 1.8 The main role for local authorities in relation to children affected by bloodborne viruses will be to support families in caring for children. This may include respite care and family placements for children. Support should also be given to children/adolescents acting as young carers and to those children/adolescents orphaned by the death of a parent(s). However, in certain circumstances, the local authority s role may shift to protecting children because there will be a small number of families who, unrelated to their medical condition, will neglect or abuse their children. 2

9 Introduction Blood borne viruses 1.9 Blood borne viruses are infectious agents that some people carry persistently in their blood. They can cause severe disease in some cases, and few or no symptoms in others. The virus can be spread to another person and this may occur whether the carrier of the virus is ill or not The main blood borne viruses of concern are: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), affecting the immune system of the body; hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), which cause hepatitis, a disease of the liver, which in a proportion of cases can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer Blood borne viruses are spread by direct contact with the blood of an infected person. Certain other body fluids may also be infectious e.g. semen, vaginal secretions and breast milk. The risk of blood borne virus infection from body fluids or materials most likely to be encountered in the home, child care, early years or school environment (e.g. urine, faeces, saliva, sputum, sweat, tears and vomit) is minimal unless they are contaminated with blood. However, the presence of blood is not always obvious in these fluids It should be noted that blood borne viruses are not spread by normal social contact and daily activities e.g. coughing, sneezing, kissing, hugging, holding hands, or sharing bathrooms, swimming pools, toilets, food, cups, cutlery and crockery. Related Department of Health guidance 1.13 Related Department of Health guidance is cross referenced in the text, and a list of useful publications and sources of advice is contained in Annex 1. 3

10 Introduction Local advice on blood borne viruses 1.14 Local advice on blood borne viruses may be sought from the Consultant in Communicable Disease Control who can be contacted via the local Primary Care Trust or the Health Protection Agency. In addition, where appropriate, advice may be sought from a microbiologist, virologist or a genito urinary medicine (GUM) or infectious diseases physician. 4

11 2. Legislative framework: duties of local authorities under the Children Act 1989, the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 and other legislation The Children Act The Children Act 1989 provides the statutory context for supporting and protecting vulnerable children and their families within local authority areas. 2.2 The general duty (section 17, Children Act 1989) is to safeguard and promote the welfare of children in need and, so far as is consistent with their welfare, to promote the upbringing of these children by their families, by providing an appropriate range and level of services. The definition of a child in need is set out in section 17(10) of the Act. If a young asylum seeker falls within that definition, social services departments have the same responsibilities to provide services to them as to other children. 2.3 Some children are in need because they are suffering or likely to suffer significant harm. Local authorities are required to make enquiries and to consider whether action should be taken to protect such children where they have reasonable cause to suspect they are at risk (section 47, Children Act 1989 and Working Together to Safeguard Children (1999)). 2.4 The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (2000) provides a systematic methodology for the analysis and evaluation of the circumstances of children in need and their families. 5

12 Legislative framework 2.5 Local authorities are required to consider how best to promote the health and development of children in their care or for whom they provide accommodation, particularly those for whom permanent placement, including adoption, is part of their care plan. The Department of Health s guidance, Promoting the Health of Looked After Children (2002), is relevant here. Where children may have been in contact with blood borne viruses or are themselves infected, there will be a particular need to refer to the guidance in this document. 2.6 Local authorities and local child health services will need to work closely together to ensure that the needs of any child in their area who is affected or infected by blood borne viruses are appropriately assessed and support provided. The Government s Objectives for Children s Social Services (1999) sets out clearly the requirements for social services and what they are expected to achieve together with other agencies in the community for disadvantaged families and vulnerable children. Within the Government s Objectives, emphasis is placed on ensuring that the needs of ethnic minority children and their families are sensitively and appropriately considered and met, and this is a key principle of current policy. The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act Under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 and the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999, local authorities have a legal duty to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health of their employees at work, and a duty not to expose to health risks any nonemployees who may be affected by their work. Local authorities should have a health and safety policy and ensure that employees are familiar with it. 2.8 Specific legislation on controlling biological hazards, such as blood borne viruses, in the workplace is covered by the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations Under COSHH, local authorities have a legal duty to assess the risk of infection for employees and others affected by their work. When a risk is identified, local authorities should take suitable precautions to protect the health of their employees and others affected by their work. Employees should also be given adequate information, instruction and training on any risks to their health that they may face in the course of their work. 6

13 Legislative framework The Public Health (Control of Disease Act) The Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1984 gives local authorities certain powers and duties in relation to the control and prevention of infectious disease, and requires members of the public and others not to expose others to the risk of infection of some infectious diseases in the circumstances specified. Regulations made under the Act (the Public Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations 1988) apply some of the provisions of the Act to viral hepatitis and a smaller number, with some modification, to AIDS. In particular, there is a requirement for registered medical practitioners to notify the local authority proper officer (e.g. the Consultant in Communicable Disease Control) of new cases of viral hepatitis. The Carers and Disabled Children Act The Carers and Disabled Children Act 2000 which came into force in relation to England on 1 April 2001, gives local authorities the power to supply certain services direct to carers following assessment. The Disability Discrimination Act Currently, a person with a progressive condition is regarded as a disabled person for the purposes of the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 if they have a physical or mental impairment that has a substantial and long term adverse effect on their ability to carry out normal day to day activities. The Act modifies this general definition for people with a progressive condition such as HIV. They do not have to show that the effects of the impairment are substantial. They will be treated as disabled if the impairment produces any effect on their ability to carry out normal dayto day activities, provided that the condition will result in impairment having a substantial affect in the future The Government has announced that, subject to the approval of Parliament, the definition of disability in the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 will be extended to include people with asymptomatic HIV infection. The necessary legislation to do this was published in draft form as the Draft Disability Discrimination Bill in December

14 Legislative framework The Race Relations (Amendment) Act The Race Relations (Amendment) Act, which has its origins in the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, became law on 1 December 2000 and outlaws race discrimination in all public functions. The Act amends the Race Relations Act 1976 to place a general duty on public authorities, including local authority social services departments, to have due regard to the need to eliminate unlawful racial discrimination and to promote race equality and good race relations between people of different racial groups Although local authorities have been under a legal obligation since the 1976 Race Relations Act not to discriminate on grounds of race, the new Act extends this requirement to all the functions of the authority, including those carried out by independent sector organisations contracted to the authority. All local authorities have a duty to publish a Race Equality Scheme and this should include details of how the social services department is taking active steps to promote race equality. The Human Rights Act The Human Rights Act 1998 came into force on 2 October It gives effect in the United Kingdom to most of the rights under the European Convention on Human Rights. It means that public bodies must have human rights principles in mind when they make decisions affecting people s rights. Article 8 (right to respect for private and family life) will have a particular bearing on this guidance. 8

15 3. Transmission of HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C HIV 3.1 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is a virus that attacks the body s immune system making it vulnerable, over time, to infections that a healthy immune system would fight off. However, people with HIV do not necessarily have symptoms or feel unwell. Adults may experience a short illness soon after they become infected (termed seroconversion illness) with symptoms ranging from mild and flu like to more severe symptoms such as prolonged fever, aching limbs, skin rash, sore throat, diarrhoea, severe headaches and aversion to light. These symptoms are not specific to HIV infection and could have other less serious causes. 3.2 When a person with HIV infection develops certain tumours or contracts a so called opportunistic infection (i.e. an infection caused by bacteria, viruses or fungi that takes the opportunity to infect a person with a damaged immune system), they may be diagnosed as having AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome). There is as yet no cure for AIDS or a vaccine that can protect against HIV infection. There are, however, anti retroviral drugs that can improve the quality of life and extend the lifespan of people with HIV. However, such treatments may have debilitating side effects. In addition, people with HIV infection may take prophylactic drugs (e.g. certain antibiotics) to prevent them from acquiring opportunistic infections and to keep them in good health. HIV in children 3.3 The vast majority of HIV infected children in this country have acquired HIV infection through mother to child transmission. Infection may pass from the mother to the unborn child in the womb during pregnancy, during delivery of the baby or after birth through breastfeeding. Around 1 in 4 infants exposed to HIV infection in this way will become infected in the absence of measures to reduce transmission (see Chapter 4). Infants infected through mother to child transmission show few symptoms of acute HIV infection in the first weeks of life, but progression to serious 9

16 Transmission of HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C disease or death is rapid, and up to 25% of these infants will progress to serious disease or death by their first birthday. Children with HIV should be referred to a specialist HIV paediatrician for assessment. How is HIV spread? 3.4 HIV infection is spread by blood to blood contact with an infected person s blood. Certain other body fluids may also be infectious e.g. semen, vaginal secretions and breast milk. 3.5 The main routes of infection are: by sexual intercourse with an infected person without a condom (i.e. unprotected sex); by sharing blood contaminated needles or other equipment for injecting drug use; from an infected mother to her baby during pregnancy, while giving birth or through breastfeeding. Other less common routes by which the infection may be spread are: by unprotected oral sex with an infected person; through a blood transfusion in a country where blood donations are not screened for HIV (all blood donations in the UK are screened for HIV); by invasive medical/dental treatment abroad using non sterile instruments/needles; by tattooing, cosmetic piercing (e.g. ear and body piercing) or acupuncture with unsterilised needles or equipment; by sharing razors and toothbrushes (which may be contaminated with blood) with an infected person. 3.6 HIV infection is not spread by social contact and daily activities e.g. coughing, sneezing, kissing, hugging, holding hands, or sharing bathrooms, swimming pools, toilets, food, cups, cutlery and crockery. 10

17 Transmission of HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C Distribution of HIV 3.7 HIV is endemic world wide. The number of people living with HIV infection (the prevalence) in the UK is relatively low (about 0.17% of the adult population) compared with some of our European neighbours. This is attributed to the early introduction in the mid 1980s of wide ranging health promotion campaigns and needle exchange schemes for injecting drug users. However, there is wide geographical variation in levels of HIV infection (prevalence) in the UK, with the focus of the epidemic being in London and other large cities. Among pregnant women giving birth in 2002, the prevalence of HIV infection was 0.38% in London compared with 0.06% in the rest of England. Prevalence is much higher in some other parts of the world, particularly sub Saharan Africa. This is reflected in the 80 fold higher prevalence of HIV infection in women born in sub Saharan Africa (2.47%) who gave birth in the UK in 2002 relative to women born in the UK (HIV prevalence of 0.03%). Hepatitis B 3.8 Hepatitis B is a viral infection that may damage the liver and cause serious long term consequences. People with acute hepatitis B infection do not necessarily have symptoms or feel unwell, but some do get a short flulike illness, often with jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes and dark urine), nausea, vomiting and loss of appetite. Infection without symptoms, and illness without jaundice, occurs particularly in children. Very rarely, hepatitis B infection may cause acute liver failure. Hepatitis B infection is preventable by immunisation (see paragraphs , and 4.53). 3.9 Most adults infected with the virus recover fully and develop lifelong immunity. However, a small proportion about 1 in 20 may remain persistently infected. This is sometimes referred to as chronic infection or carriage. Babies infected at birth from their mothers have up to about a 90% chance of becoming persistently infected and children infected aged 1 10 years have about a 25% chance of becoming persistently infected. About 1 in 5 of those infected with hepatitis B in infancy or childhood may develop serious liver damage later in life such as cirrhosis (scarring of the liver) and primary liver cancer. Children with persistent hepatitis B infection should be referred for assessment by a specialist clinician. Drug treatments may be available. 11

18 Transmission of HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C 3.10 The UK has a relatively low prevalence of hepatitis B; it is estimated that about % of the general population are persistently infected with hepatitis B. Hepatitis B is more common in other parts of the world such as South East Asia, the Indian sub continent, the Middle and Far East, Africa, South America, parts of Eastern Europe and Southern Europe. How is hepatitis B spread? 3.11 Hepatitis B infection is spread by blood to blood contact with an infected person s blood or certain body fluids e.g. semen, vaginal secretions. The hepatitis B virus is highly infectious and more easily transmitted than HIV by blood borne routes. The main routes by which infection is spread are: from an infected mother to her baby usually at birth (many people with hepatitis B from countries in which hepatitis B infection is highly endemic will have been infected by this route themselves); by sexual intercourse with an infected person without a condom; by sharing contaminated needles or other equipment for injecting drug use; through a blood transfusion in a country where blood donations are not screened for hepatitis B (all blood donations in the UK are screened for hepatitis B); by invasive medical/dental treatment abroad using non sterile instruments/needles. Other less common routes by which the infection may be spread are: by tattooing, cosmetic piercing (e.g. ear piercing or body piercing) or acupuncture with unsterilised needles or equipment; by sharing razors and toothbrushes (which may be contaminated with blood) with an infected person Like HIV, hepatitis B infection is not spread by normal social contact and daily activities e.g. coughing, sneezing, kissing, hugging, holding hands, or sharing bathrooms, swimming pools, toilets, food, cups, cutlery and crockery. 12

19 Transmission of HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C Hepatitis C 3.13 Like hepatitis B, hepatitis C is a viral infection that may damage the liver. Many people with hepatitis C infection have no symptoms and are often unaware that they have been infected. Some people will experience tiredness, nausea, loss of appetite, abdominal pain and flu like symptoms. They may also develop jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes and dark urine), but this is unusual About 20 40% of people with hepatitis C infection will clear the virus and recover completely. The majority of people who get hepatitis C infection may remain persistently infected (this is sometimes referred to as chronic infection or carriage), many of whom will have only mild liver damage. About 5 20% of people with persistent infection develop severe scarring of the liver (cirrhosis) after years. A small number of those patients who develop cirrhosis may go on to develop liver cancer. The majority of patients who get hepatitis C infection are likely to live out their normal lifespan. Children with persistent hepatitis C infection should be referred for assessment by a specialist clinician. Drug treatments may be available The UK has a relatively low prevalence of hepatitis C. It is estimated that about 0.4% of the general population are persistently infected with hepatitis C. Hepatitis C is more common in other parts of the world e.g. Egypt, some other parts of Africa, South East Asia and Southern Europe. How is hepatitis C spread? Hepatitis C infection is spread by blood to blood contact with an infected person s blood or other body fluids if they are contaminated with blood. Before the introduction of measures such as the heat treatment of blood products (1985) and screening of blood donations (1991), hepatitis C infection was occasionally transmitted by blood and blood products. As a result of the comprehensive measures now in place, the chance of being infected with hepatitis C through blood transfusion and blood product use is now very low. However, there may be a risk of hepatitis C transmission in countries where safety measures for blood and blood products are not in place. Currently, the main way in which hepatitis C infection is passed on in the UK is through the sharing of contaminated equipment by injecting drug users. 13

20 Transmission of HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C 3.17 Other less common ways in which the infection may be passed on are: from an infected mother to her baby at birth (This risk is increased if a mother is also infected with HIV. Currently there is no proven association between breastfeeding and hepatitis C transmission, and hepatitis C positive mothers should not be advised against breastfeeding.); by sexual intercourse with an infected person without a condom; from unsterile equipment used for tattooing, cosmetic piercing (e.g. ear and body piercing) or acupuncture; by invasive medical/dental treatment abroad using non sterile instruments/needles; by sharing razors and toothbrushes (which may be contaminated with blood) with an infected person Hepatitis C infection is not spread by normal daily contact and activities e.g. coughing, sneezing, kissing, hugging, holding hands, or sharing bathrooms, swimming pools, toilets, food, cups, cutlery and crockery. Are other body fluids infectious? 3.19 Urine, faeces, saliva, sputum, tears, sweat and vomit are not considered to pose a risk of HIV, hepatitis B or hepatitis C infection, unless they are contaminated with blood. However, some of these may be risky for other reasons (e.g. faeces may contain bacteria that cause gastro intestinal infections). 14

21 4. Preventing blood borne virus transmission 4.1 The major routes of transmission of blood borne viruses have been well characterised and are described in detail in Chapter 3. Preventing transmission means avoiding exposure to the viruses (e.g. through unprotected sexual intercourse or sharing of injecting drug equipment). Children and young people looked after by local authorities need ageappropriate information and advice on preventing blood borne virus transmission, particularly as some older children and young people may be at particular risk of HIV, hepatitis B or hepatitis C (e.g. because of injecting drug use, involvement in prostitution or unprotected sexual intercourse with frequent partner change). It is also important that local authority staff and carers are given appropriate information, advice and training. Local advice on blood borne viruses may be sought from the Consultant in Communicable Disease Control who can be contacted via the local Primary Care Trust or Health Protection Agency. In addition, where appropriate, advice can be sought from a microbiologist, virologist or a genito urinary medicine (GUM) or infectious diseases physician. 4.2 For some children, such as those who are looked after by local authorities, there are particular issues to consider. The Department of Health s guidance, Promoting Health for Looked After Children, provides information about how best to ensure these children receive appropriate access to health care and advice about health promotion. Local authorities should ensure that all those working with and caring for children, including foster carers, are provided with information and training about child health issues, including blood borne viruses. 4.3 The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy and The National Strategy for Sexual Health and HIV are initiatives that are geared to ensuring that prevention of infection is actively promoted by all those who work with children and young people. There is an emphasis on identifying the most vulnerable children, including those who are looked after, those who are offending and those who are involved in substance abuse. 15

22 Preventing blood borne virus transmission 4.4 As part of The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy, best practice guidance designed to improve access to advice and contraception for all young people has been issued to local teenage pregnancy co ordinators. Guidance has also been issued on developing contraception and advice services for boys and young men, and for people from black and minority ethnic communities. 4.5 Research has shown that looked after young people and care leavers are at particular risk of teenage pregnancy, and guidance for social workers and youth workers has also been issued which makes clear that they can, and should, direct young people to seek advice and contraception if it appears that they are, or are planning to become, sexually active. 4.6 Every local authority area (social services boundaries) has produced a tenyear local teenage pregnancy strategy, beginning in The strategies outline how health and local authorities will work with other local agencies to take forward the aims of the national Teenage Pregnancy Strategy. Details of local strategies are available from local teenage pregnancy co ordinators. 4.7 Existing Quality Protects guidance asks local authorities to set out activity and future plans for reducing teenage pregnancy amongst looked after young people, for supporting teenage parents who are looked after and for staff training. Preventing mother to baby transmission 4.8 Blood borne viruses may be transmitted from an infected mother to her baby during pregnancy, childbirth or via breastfeeding, although the risks differ depending on the particular virus. Interventions are available that can reduce the risk of transmission of HIV and hepatitis B, but only if the pregnant woman knows that she is infected before giving birth. All pregnant women should now be offered and recommended screening for HIV and hepatitis B as part of their routine antenatal care and babies born to infected mothers should be followed up to ensure that they have not been infected. 16

23 Preventing blood borne virus transmission HIV 4.9 In this country, most children with HIV are infected as a result of transmission of HIV infection from their mothers during pregnancy, childbirth or via breastfeeding. The Department of Health has asked NHS and Primary Care Trusts to ensure that all pregnant women are offered and recommended a test for HIV as an integral part of their antenatal care (Health Service Circular 1999/183 Reducing mother to baby transmission of HIV), together with appropriate information about the implications of the test result. Those found to be positive can then be offered advice and treatment during antenatal care. The risk of transmission of HIV from an infected mother to her baby during pregnancy, while giving birth or through breastfeeding can be reduced from about 1 in 4 to around 1 in 50 by interventions such as: anti retroviral drug treatment for the mother during the late stages of pregnancy and the infant for the first weeks of life; careful obstetric management during pregnancy and birth such as an elective caesarean section; avoidance of breastfeeding. Breastfeeding 4.10 Breastfeeding, in particular exclusive breastfeeding, is the ideal way to feed infants and should be promoted and supported. Its benefits go beyond sound nutrition in that it protects against common childhood infections. However, as it is one of the routes of mother to child HIV transmission, HIV infected women in the UK are advised not to breastfeed. For the latest guidance, see HIV and Infant Feeding: Guidance from the UK Chief Medical Officers Expert Advisory Group on AIDS (September 2004). In cases of financial hardship, where purchasing infant formula milk is a barrier to avoidance of breastfeeding, a range of social and health care agencies may be able to provide free or low cost infant formula milk for infants born to HIV infected mothers. 17

24 Preventing blood borne virus transmission 4.11 The majority of HIV infected pregnant women take up the offer of interventions to reduce the likelihood of passing on HIV to their infants, including choosing not to breastfeed. Rarely, however, an HIV infected mother may feel unable to avoid breastfeeding entirely. For example, women from a background where breastfeeding is the norm may fear deductive disclosure of their HIV status (if they do not breastfeed) because of the adverse social consequences that may follow disclosure such as violence, stigma, ostracism or abandonment. Women may also be under pressure to breastfeed from Breast is best campaigns In cases where women feel unable to avoid breastfeeding, their fears should be recognised and extra support provided to overcome these difficulties. Input from an expert professional, usually a midwife, may be helpful to explore the reasons for and implications of choosing to breastfeed. If, after considering all the alternatives, an HIV infected mother chooses to breastfeed, she should be provided with information about measures that may help reduce the risk of transmission of HIV to her baby. Local arrangements between health and social services can provide a positive way of resolving any practical difficulties and ensuring that all related matters are considered. Solutions should be sought, where possible, putting the best interests of the baby first There have been several high profile child protection cases involving mothers with HIV. These have questioned whether informed choice can be sustained under circumstances where not accepting interventions (to reduce mother to child transmission of HIV e.g. avoiding breastfeeding or refusing consent for antiretroviral treatment of a newborn baby) might constitute a child protection issue. As yet, however, there has been no judgment directly on this point and clarification is only likely to come from a future court ruling. In the interim, it should be borne in mind that, under the Children Act 1989, the welfare of the child is paramount. Hepatitis B 4.14 All pregnant women should be offered a test for hepatitis B as part of their antenatal care (Health Service Circular 1998/127 Screening of Pregnant Women for Hepatitis B and Immunisation of Babies at Risk). The risk of hepatitis B transmission from an infected mother to her baby at or around the time of birth can be minimised if the baby receives a full course of immunisation starting shortly after birth. Immunisation of babies born to infected mothers commencing at birth is 90 95% effective in 18

25 Preventing blood borne virus transmission preventing persistent infection with hepatitis B. Babies acquiring infection at this time have a high risk of becoming persistently infected, and are also at increased risk of developing chronic liver disease. Some will die prematurely from cirrhosis or primary liver cancer, as well as being infectious to others Babies born to mothers infected with hepatitis B should be immunised with the accelerated immunisation schedule. This will mean an initial dose at birth, with further doses at one and two months of age and with a booster dose at twelve months. A blood test to check that the vaccine has prevented the baby becoming infected should also be carried out at this time. It is important that arrangements are in place to ensure that babies born to infected mothers receive a complete course of vaccine. For babies born to mothers who are considered to be highly infectious, an injection of antibodies against hepatitis B (hepatitis B immunoglobulin) is recommended at birth or shortly afterwards for additional protection. There is no reason why mothers with hepatitis B should not breastfeed if the baby receives a complete course of vaccine starting at birth If a pregnant woman is found to have hepatitis B infection, then arrangements should be made to offer her husband/sexual partner and any existing children a hepatitis B test. Results of these tests will indicate if further actions are needed such as immunisation of those who are nonimmune and referral of the mother and any others shown to be infected. Hepatitis C 4.17 The risk of transmission of hepatitis C from an infected mother to her baby is lower than for HIV or hepatitis B. However, this risk increases when the mother is also infected with HIV. Currently, there is no vaccine, drug treatment or other well established method to prevent mother to baby transmission of hepatitis C infection. Breastfeeding is not thought to play a significant part in mother to baby transmission of hepatitis C. However, where a mother is known to have hepatitis C infection or may have been exposed to hepatitis C in the past (e.g. because of injecting drug use), it may be appropriate to consider testing the child for hepatitis C. If tests show that the child has hepatitis C infection, referral for specialist medical assessment is advised. 19

26 Preventing blood borne virus transmission Preventing sexual transmission 4.18 Sexual transmission of blood borne viruses and other sexually transmitted infections can be reduced significantly by the use of condoms. Condoms are available free from family planning clinics, Brook Centres, NHS Walk in Centres and NHS sexual health (GUM) clinics. Condoms should carry the European CE mark. Advice on how to use a condom is available on the playing safely website ( The Department of Health s guidance Effective Sexual Health Promotion Toolkit includes good practice and practical guidance on sexual health promotion and HIV prevention for a number of groups, including young people, black and minority ethnic groups and men who have sex with men. Preventing transmission associated with injecting drug use 4.19 Any equipment used for injecting drug use including needles, syringes, filters, spoons, water, cups or pots may transmit infection if shared with other people. Therefore injecting equipment should not be shared. Needles should be discarded into a sharps container (conforming to UN 3291 and BS 7320 standards) at the point of use or discovery. Containers must not be over filled and those sited in public areas should be located in a safe position Prevention of transmission associated with injecting drug use involves a range of measures including the active promotion of information and advice about the risks of sharing injecting equipment, the provision and use of needle exchange schemes, outreach services and the availability and access to specialist drug treatments and services Key messages about hepatitis C for those working with drug users (contained in Department of Health guidance) apply equally for other blood borne viruses and are set out below: 20

27 Preventing blood borne virus transmission Hepatitis C guidance for those working with drug users (2001) The key messages to drug users are: Do not start injecting If currently injecting then stop If unable to stop injecting then reduce harm Use safer injecting practices (this includes paraphernalia) Avoid initiating others (or as a minimum provide them with harm reduction advice) Use needle exchange schemes 4.22 People at risk of beginning to inject are usually initiated into injecting by existing injecting drug users (IDUs), so measures should be aimed at raising awareness of the risk of acquiring infection (both to new and to existing drug users) IDUs should be encouraged to use sterile syringes and needles and to avoid sharing needles and syringes. In addition, those who inject drugs should be encouraged to adopt hygienic practices. This includes cleaning the injection site with alcohol, never sharing any injecting paraphernalia (such as filters, tourniquets, mixing bowls), and washing hands before and after injection Needle exchange schemes provided through drug agencies and by pharmacies have a key role to play in reducing infections as these services are likely to be in contact with more injectors than any other. Good practice should also be followed in the safe disposal of used needles and syringes Encouraging enrolment in treatment services may be important for harm reduction. This has been shown to have an overall positive effect, reducing injecting and sharing behaviour and hence risk of infection by blood borne viruses. 21

28 Preventing blood borne virus transmission Cosmetic piercing (ear piercing and body piercing) and tattooing 4.26 Blood borne viruses may be transmitted via unsterilised equipment used for cosmetic piercing or tattooing. Sterile piercing instruments and jewellery should be used on each customer. Local authority environmental health departments are a useful source of advice as they regulate such businesses under specific legislation and Health and Safety at Work legislation and work with the businesses to promote safe and hygienic practices In choosing a reputable piercer, potential customers visiting a cosmetic piercing business should check that both the premises and the operator are clean, and that sterile piercing instruments and jewellery are used on each customer. The piercer should discuss fully the type of piercing requested and possible risks, ask about any health conditions that the customer may have and, if necessary, advise them to contact their GP before proceeding. After care advice should be provided on looking after the piercing until it heals It is an offence to tattoo a person under the age of 18 years Tattooing of Minors Act Hygienic procedures to reduce the risk of blood borne virus transmission Local authority staff and carers 4.29 The following hygiene precautions are recommended as safe practice for all local authority staff and for all those who care for children. These are common sense precautions that will protect against blood borne viruses and other infections that may be transmitted via blood and body fluids. They should be incorporated as standard practice in all settings at all times. Guidance on the management of occupational exposure to HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C is contained in paragraphs Carers and staff may require training on standard infection control precautions. 22

29 Preventing blood borne virus transmission Standard infection control precautions Always keep cuts or broken skin covered with waterproof dressings; Avoid direct skin contact with blood or body fluids; If blood is splashed onto the skin, it should be washed off immediately with soap and water. Splashes of blood into the eyes or mouth should be washed immediately with plenty of water; If a sharps injury is sustained or blood is splashed into the eyes or mouth, or on to non intact skin (e.g. eczema) medical advice should be sought promptly (see paragraphs ); Wear disposable gloves when contact with blood or body fluids is likely; Always wash and dry hands after removing gloves; Always wash and dry your hands before and after giving first aid; Never share toothbrushes and razors as they might be contaminated with blood; Teach children about avoiding contact with other people s blood as soon as they are able to understand how to protect themselves; Teach children to wash and dry their hands before meals and after using the toilet. Local education authorities and proprietors providing services in schools and in early years and childcare settings 4.30 The Department for Education and Skills has provided general information for schools on the TeacherNet website at: topic&id=239&part=1. The Hints and Tips section also recommends that infection control precautions are adopted as standard practice for handling accidents involving external bleeding. This follows the principles of universal infection control precautions, whereby all blood is treated as potentially infectious regardless of source, and recommends the use of disposable gloves Regulations under the Children Act require early years and childcare providers to meet the 14 standards as set out in the national standards 23

30 Preventing blood borne virus transmission for under 8s day care childminding documentation. Standard 7 (Health) states that the registered person promotes the good health of children and takes positive steps to prevent the spread of infection; also, that staff are informed and kept up to date with hygiene precautions. Spillages of blood or body fluids 4.32 It is recommended that spillages are dealt with in the following ways: Household grade gloves and a disposable plastic apron should be worn when cleaning splashes or spillages. Eye protection should be considered if there is a risk of splashing. Gloves should be washed with neutral detergent and hot water after use. Hands should always be washed and dried on removal of gloves. Spillages of blood Small spills or splashes of blood on floors or other hard surfaces should be cleaned with neutral detergent and hot water. Large spills should be covered with sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NADCC) granules for two minutes. The spillage and granules should be removed with paper towels, which should be disposed of carefully into a waste bag. The area should be cleaned with hot water and neutral detergent. NADCC granules should not be used on metal, wood or fabric as they may damage these surfaces. Chlorine fumes will be released when NADCC granules are used, therefore it is important that the area is well ventilated. These granules should not be used on spillages of urine. Spillages of body fluids Small spills or splashes on floors or other hard surfaces should be cleaned with neutral detergent and hot water. Large spillages should be covered with absorbent paper towels and the area then cleaned with hot water and neutral detergent. Paper towels should be disposed of carefully into a waste bag. 24