病原生物学与免疫学 - 寄生虫学进展与临床 ( 选修课文本简本 )

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1 病原生物学与免疫学 - 寄生虫学进展与临床 ( 选修课文本简本 ) 概述临床寄生虫病学 : 现状与趋势 危害严重, 而防治力量薄弱 ; 我国寄生虫病防治现实需求巨大的 DALYs 对社会经济发展的影响 ; 寄生虫病的漏诊与被忽视和忽略 ; 近年寄生虫学关键词的启示 援非抗疟 : 中非合作论坛信息 (2006); 非洲每年 100 万 5 岁以下儿童死于疟疾 ; 广州管圆线虫病 : 祸起福寿螺,2006 年北京重大突发公共卫生事件 ; 肝吸虫病 : 广西 200 万人食生鱼感染肝吸虫 (CCTV2006 年 9 月 ); 疟疾 : 安徽疟疾疫情大幅回升 ( 新华社 2006 年 10 月 ) 新发现寄生虫病的启示 巴贝西虫 ( 巴贝斯虫 ) 新种类的发现 ; 自由生活阿米巴致病性新种类的发现 ; 动物寄生虫的人体感染的新发现 ( 如司氏伯特绦虫 ); 新的感染路径的可能性 ( 新近发现的复孔绦虫 ); 潜在威胁 未知种类虫种的存在 寄生虫病的特点? 症状多样 ;? 表现复杂 ;? 常见多发 ;? 漏诊误诊多见 1

2 WHO 关于病种的分析报告 在危害人类健康的最常见的 48 种疾病中 : 传染病和寄生虫病占 40 种 ; 其发病人数占总人数的 85% 经常见于临床的实例 贫血 ---- 钩虫病 ; 呼吸系统感染 ---- 蛔蚴和钩蚴移行致呼吸系统症状 ; 细菌性或病毒性腹泻 ---- 原虫性腹泻 ; 中枢神经系统感染 ---- 脑囊虫病等 ; 等等 安徽省内重要的 / 有影响的 寄生虫 / 病 血吸虫病 ; 疟疾 ; 带绦虫病与囊虫病 ; 结膜吸吮线虫病 ; 肺吸虫病 ; 藐小棘隙吸虫病 ; 神经系统寄生虫进展与临床 常见的神经系统寄生虫? 原虫 : 溶组织内阿米巴 ; 弓形虫 ; 锥虫 ; 疟原虫等 ;? 蠕虫 : 猪囊尾蚴 ; 旋毛虫 ; 肺吸虫 ; 细粒棘球蚴等 ; 近年渐受重视的虫种? 广州管圆线虫 ; 自生生活阿米巴 ; 弓形虫等 2

3 自生生活阿米巴 弓形虫 广州管圆线虫 1945 年 Nomura 和 Lin 首次报道台湾省 1 例 15 岁的男孩脑脊液中检获该虫幼虫 1946 年后东南亚各国和太平洋 印度洋各岛屿, 陆续发现该病病例 分布地区跨越北纬 23 至南纬 23 的热带和亚热带 全球已报告确诊和疑似病例达 余例, 其中我国台湾省占 300 余例 过去, 该病在我国大陆极为罕见, 直至 1996 年才报道 4 例确诊病例 近 8 年来, 我国大陆沿海地区, 不断出现现症病例和疑似病例, 且在部分地区引起爆发 1997 年 10 月, 温洲市首次发生广州管圆线虫集体感染并引起该病爆发, 105 人因食凉拌 辣味螺肉 造成 47 人发病, 罹患率 44.8% ; 而未吃螺肉者 77 人, 则无人发病 2002 年 8 月 26 日, 福建省长乐市漳港镇龙峰村, 8 名 11~13 岁的学生, 在本村水沟内捞 取 100 余只福寿螺, 敲碎后, 取 5~10 只头部组织串起烧烤吃, 全部发病 2002 年 10 月 9 日, 福州市某单位职工 20 人在某酒楼聚餐食用 爆炒美国蜗牛肉, 2 d 后 13 人开始发病 2006 年从 6 月 24 日始, 北京首次发生群体性广州管圆线虫病 在对 85 名临床住院病例进行了病学个案调查中发现, 主要集中在经济收入较高的青壮年,20 到 40 岁 76 例 10 到 13 岁 2 例 50 到 57 岁 7 例, 而且均有生食或半生食淡水螺肉的就餐史 自生生活阿米巴 耐格里属原虫 ( 耐格里阿米巴 ) 棘阿米巴 曼德利尔原虫 ( 曼德利尔阿米巴 ) Naegleria Meningoencephalitis A rare infection Naegleria fowleri Small free-living amoebas 3

4 Found in soil, fresh water, and sewage Can be normal flora Protozoan feeds on bacteria but if introduced into the CNS can feed on human tissue Naegleria meningoencephalitis Acquired from hot tubs, warm ponds and ground water at high temperature Children and young adults Initially infects the nasal mucosa Abrupt onset of symptoms 3 to 10 days after exposure to water Severe headache, fever, stiff neck and coma Naegleria meningoencephalitis Destroys brain and spinal tissue Death occurs within 10 days of the onset of clinical signs No treatment Chlorine kills the organism in spas and pools Balamuthia spp. as Infectious Agents 新发现的自生生活阿米巴 : 曼德利尔阿米巴 Balamuthia is another free-living ameba that causes GAE in humans and other animals First described as an isolate from the brain of a pregnant mandrill baboon that died in a zoological park Balamuthia infections have been reported in individuals with compromised health status, with AIDS patients among those diagnosed, as well as in immunocompetent individuals. Other Amebas as Infectious Agents A recent report (BB Gelman et al. JAMA 2001,285, ) has identified Sappinia diploidea, a soil ameba, as the cause of amebic encephalitis in a human. The report suggested that 4

5 the portal of entry was the respiratory tract. 新的自生生活阿米巴病原体将陆续被发现! Given the increasing numbers of immunocompromised and debilitated hosts, it is likely that more of the free-living amebas will be recognized as opportunistic infectious agents. 病例讨论 Present illness A previously healthy 10-year-old boy was seen in July in the emergency department suffering from fever and a severe headache of several days' duration. He had vomited several times and complained of nausea and a runny nose. The weather had been very hot, and the child had spent much of the summer swimming in a local pond. On examination, the emergency room physician noted neck stiffness and performed a lumbar puncture. Lab finding Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was collected and sent to the laboratory for cell count, glucose and protein levels, bacterial culture, and a request to "rule out an amebic infection." Lab finding The white blood cell count of the CSF was 25,000 per mm3, with neutrophils pre-dominating. A small number of red blood cells were also present. The glucose level was decreased (<5 mg/dl), and the protein level was markedly elevated (600 mg/dl). The Gram stain of the CSF showed many white blood cells but no bacteria. A wet mount microscopic examination revealed motile amebic trophozoites. A trichrome stain was made and revealed an ameboid form. A diagnosis of meningoencephalitis was made. The child was admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) but died on the fourth day of hospitalization. Question 1 Which ameba is likely to be responsible for the child's symptoms? What is the name of this infection? 耐格里阿米巴 (Naegleria fowleri) 短暂时期有鞭毛, 且在宿主体内不形成包囊 只有活动体, 5

6 只在环境不利时形成包囊 急性感染常在特定淡水区域游泳的年轻人, 由鼻腔进入, 通过筛板, 经嗅神经, 形成脑膜脑炎, 称之为原发性阿米巴性脑膜脑炎 (PAM,primary amoebic meningo-meninginitis) Question 2 What is the correlation between a "hot summer" and the child's illness? 30 余度的游泳池温度 The means of determining whether a person has PAM are as follows : Clinical signs and symptoms History of swimming in hot or warm water Isolation of the amebas Question 3 What are the stages in the life cycle of this parasite? Naegleria.Flagellate Naegleria.Trophozoite Question 4 How is the diagnosis of this infection made in the laboratory? wet mount microscopic examination The direct wet mount is used primarily to detect motile protozoan trophozoites. These organisms are very pale and transparent, two characteristics that require the use of low light intensity. A weak iodine solution is recommended; too strong a solution may obscure the organisms. The color should resemble "strong tea." Several types of iodine are available; Gram's iodine used in bacterial work is not recommended for staining parasitic organisms. Question 5 How is this infection transmitted? Question 6 Which other ameba resembles this parasite and may cause a similar type of infection? 6

7 Acanthamoeba spp. 棘阿米巴 (Acanthamoeba) 引起脑炎 Question 7 How can these two amebae be distinguished? 耐格里阿米巴 (Naegleria fowleri) 在组织中不会形成包囊 ; 耐格里阿米巴 (Naegleria fowleri) 短期有鞭毛, 且在宿主体内不形成 cyst 只有活动体, 只 在环境不利时形成 cyst Question 8 Which other infectious disease might be confused with this illness? Bacterial meningoencephalitis Chills and fever Headache Nausea and vomiting Back pain Neck stiffness Prostration Sharp shrill cry (meningeal cry in children) Clouded, stupor or coma Convulsive seizure Acute ill-looking Conscious change (confused, stuporour, or semicomatose) Fever (may be occasionally normal at the onset) Rapid pulse & respiratory rate Neck rigidity (positive Kernig and Brudzinski signs, but may be absent in newborn, elderly, or comatous patient) IICP Decreased DTR (but occasionally increased) Question 9 7

8 Is this infection treatable??successful outcomes are reported with high-dose systemic and intrathecal( 鞘内注射 ) amphotericin B.?Survival is reported with intrathecal and systemic amphotericin B and miconazole( 咪康唑 ), as well as rifampin( 利福平 ) and sulfisoxazole( 磺胺异恶唑 ) At present there is no satisfactory treatment for PAM. (Amphotericin B) PAM carries a mortality rate of approximately 95%, and patients usually die within 72 hours. Rarely, individuals survive after early recognition and aggressive therapy. 预防 : 不要跳水, 长时间未使用的水龙头要注意, 不要把鼻子浸于水中 Toxoplasmosis Single-cell organism Global Distribution Reservoir host - Cats Uncommon cause of human disease Except:?pregnant women & fetus?immunocompromised persons Toxoplasmosis Acquired from contaminated meat or ingestion of oocysts in cat feces Toxoplasmosis Causes serious disease in developing fetus?liver damage?brain abnormalities?blindness 8

9 Serious disease in people with AIDS Prevention: no raw meat, no contact with cat litter box Toxoplasmosis Feces from a cat that is releasing Toxoplasma contaminates soil, water, and their boxes. Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasma - oocysts Toxoplasma: At Risk for Severe Disease Congenitally infected fetuses and newborns?estimated cases each year in the U.S. Immunologically impaired individuals, most commonly with defects in T-cell-mediated immunity?hematologic malignancies?bone marrow and solid organ transplants?aids, e.g. leading to toxoplasmic encephalitis Toxoplasmosis: Clinical Signs Usually asymptomatic (80-90%) Flu-like illness Lymphadenopathy Self-limiting Toxoplasmic encephalitis (AIDS) Congenital toxoplasmosis Retinochoroiditis Toxoplasmosis -- ocular lesions Congenital toxoplasmosis 寄生虫相关的神经系统或精神疾患 9

10 其他系统寄生虫病的神经系统表现 ; 恙虫病 ; 抗蠕虫药所致脑病 ; 恐寄生虫症, 或寄生虫恐怖症, 或寄生虫疑病症 III 呼吸系统寄生虫进展与临床 一 呼吸系统寄生虫概述二 呼吸系统寄生虫临床进展 ( 一 )AIDS 患者并发肺孢子虫感染艾滋病患者由寄生虫感染所致的咳嗽等呼吸系统症状案例 :The HIV infected patient presenting with cough ( 二 ) 相对少见的呼吸系统寄生虫感染 1. 由犬弓蛔虫 (Toxocara canis) 引起的嗜酸性粒细胞增多性肺炎 2. 舌形虫成虫主要寄生于肉食动物和爬行动物的呼吸道 成虫寄生在终宿主的气道内, 虫卵随口腔分泌物或粪便排出体外, 发育为感染期虫卵, 当人和动物误食被此期虫卵污染的水或食物时而获得感染 龟和鳖可能是其转续宿主或中间宿主, 幼虫寄生在其肝胆 肌肉等部位 当人生食或半生食龟蛋及龟 鳖的肝 胆和血时亦可获得感染 感染期虫卵被食入, 在消化道孵出幼虫, 继而侵入肠粘膜, 穿过肠壁, 经血流到达肺部, 穿过肺泡上行至气管, 于支气管 气管和咽喉部发育为成虫 生活史尚不明确 3. 气管比翼线虫成虫是家禽和各种鸟类寄生虫, 不需中间宿主 ; 蚯蚓 螺 蛞蝓 涡虫 蝇 蝗虫 草蜢等 : 可保持囊内的幼虫活力长达数年 临床表现主要为发热 咳嗽 哮喘及咯血, 若虫体寄生在咽喉部, 可出现搔爬刺激感和阵发性干咳 有的患者可咳出带有红色条状血样物 ( 即虫体 ) 的痰 从患者痰液中或从支气管镜检物或肺泡灌洗液中发现虫体或虫卵 摘除或用阿苯达唑或甲苯 10

11 咪唑治疗 4. 蠊缨滴虫国内 1992 年报道首例感染者 兴趣阅读 Abstract Parasitic infections of the lung occur worldwide among both immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients and may affect the respiratory system in a variety of ways. This review provides an update on the presenting symptoms, signs, investigation and management of diseases affecting the lung caused by protozoa, nematodes and trematodes. The clinical presentations and radiographic findings of several of these diseases may mimic tuberculosis and malignancy. It is important to consider parasitic infections in the differential diagnosis of such lung diseases. If identified early, most parasitic diseases that affect the lung are curable with medical or surgical treatments. 消化系统寄生虫进展与临床 一 消化系统寄生虫概述常见的消化系统寄生虫 : 肠道线虫 ; 绦虫和某些吸虫 ; 肠道原虫 ; 1 人芽囊原虫 Blastocystis hominis 传染途径人体肠道中的生活史 2. 卡耶塔园孢子虫 Cyclospora cayetanensis Cyclospora cayetanensis 3 等孢球虫 Isospora belli 11

12 4 吸虫 : 藐小棘细吸虫等 皮肤和组织寄生虫进展与临床 一 皮肤组织寄生虫概述常见的皮肤组织寄生虫 : 旋毛虫 ; 弓形虫 ; 蠕形螨 ; 疥螨等 ; 二 相对少见的皮肤 / 组织寄生虫 1 麦地那龙线虫 Dracunculus medinensis 2. 美丽筒线虫 Gongylonema pulchrum 3. 肉孢子虫病 (Sarcocystis) 4. 蝇蛆病 5. 内脏和皮肤幼虫移行症 颚口线虫 ; 斯氏狸殖吸虫 ; 曼氏迭宫绦虫 ; 异尖线虫 ( 前述 ); 动物的钩虫幼虫 ; 畜禽类血吸虫的幼虫等 寄生虫感染与肿瘤 一 与肿瘤发生相关的寄生虫感染 已知可能诱发肿瘤的寄生虫感染 12

13 -- 肝吸虫 :A parasite infection (liver fluke),which mainly occur in Africa and Asia increases the risk of developing a cholangiocarcinoma( 胆管癌 ); -- 埃及血吸虫 ; -- 疟原虫 ; -- 麝猫后睾吸虫等 ; 早在 1898 年即有报道血吸虫病合并直肠癌, 其后国内外有关血吸虫病并发大肠癌 ( 包括结肠癌及直肠癌 ) 病例与血吸虫病流行区的直肠癌发病率与死亡率较高的调查已屡见报道 二 动物实验的证据迄今, 相继的实验动物模型的体内研究已经积累的资料为了解宿主在寄生虫感染过程中的一系列机体反应的动态改变及寄生虫感染在肿瘤发生发展过程中所起的作用提供了与临床研究互相补充的重要依据 1 用日本血吸虫尾蚴 8?10 条感染 50 只 6-7 周雌性 ICR 小鼠,2 个月后每周皮下注射 1 2- 二甲肼 (DMH)20mg/kg, 共 18 周 结果在第 15 周发现小鼠大肠粘膜上皮细胞增生, 实验组第 20 周检查 18 只鼠中有 12 只大肠下段出现癌灶,5 只上段出现癌灶, 其中的 5 只癌变已达粘膜肌层, 主要为乳突状腺癌及管状腺癌, 中度分化, 而对照组 18 只小鼠中仅 4 只鼠大肠下段粘膜发生癌灶,3 只上段有癌灶 DMH 合并感染组的癌灶数为 DMH 组的 4 倍, 两组差异有显著性意义 2 日本血吸虫与 1% 乙基亚硝胺诱发家兔肝癌, 结果表明家兔感染日本血吸虫尾蚴后, 再灌胃给予二乙基亚硝胺的肝癌发生率较正常家免给予二乙基亚硝胺的为高 ; 感染家兔用吡喹酮治疗后再给予二乙基亚硝胺, 则肝癌发生率降低 提示感染日本血吸虫可促进肝癌的发生 3 含华支睾吸虫囊蚴包囊的 3 种鱼肉饲喂 26 只家猫 28 次后, 从 1 只死于支气管肺炎的猫剖检证实其患胆管癌 随机剖检 215 只自然感染的家猫中, 发现 2 只猫患胆管癌 从 3 只猫肝胆管内, 分别检出 及 200 条华支睾吸虫成虫 3 只猫的胆管癌的组织病理学特征均与华支睾吸虫病并发胆管癌患者的相似 将叙利亚金地鼠经胃管感染 20 个华支睾吸虫囊蚴 30 天后饮用 0.025% 二甲基亚硝胺溶液 17 周, 结果 11 只鼠中 4 只诱发肝癌,1 只诱发胆管癌, 而 15 只单服 0.025% 二甲基亚硝胺金地鼠 15 只中仅 3 只诱发肝癌 4 将麝猫后睾吸虫囊蚴 100 个经胃管感染 21 只 3-4 周龄叙利亚金地鼠,4 周后给予 % 二甲基亚硝胺水溶液饮用 10 周, 然后隔 8 周 ( 即整个实验第 23 周 ) 剖检, 同时设感染组 二 13

14 甲基亚硝胺组及不给任何处理对照组, 结果在感染合并二甲基亚硝胺组所有鼠均发生胆管癌, 而所有对照组各鼠均未见胆管癌 用免疫组织化学方法证明, 用 60 条麝猫后睾吸虫囊蚴感染 4-5 周龄叙利亚金地鼠后第 3 4 周腹腔注射二羟基二丙基亚硝胺 (DHPN) 诱发致癌的肝脏癌前病变中胎盘谷胱甘肽硫转移酶 (GST-P) 抗体有较高的表达, GST-P 阳性肝细胞病灶及胆管损害增多, 合并应用 dehy-droepiandrosterone(dhea) 后的癌前病变更为明显, 而麝猫后睾吸虫感染起到了促进癌变的作用 引起炎症反应与细胞增生 ; 引起染色体异常 ; 引起 DNA 甲基化损伤及其修复功能降低 ; 引起基因改变 ; 抑制免疫功能 ; 寄生虫及其虫卵本身的作用等 我国血吸虫病高度流行的浙江省嘉善县, 大肠癌的发病率高达 44.2/10 万, 而吉林省仅为 2.7/10 万 浙江省嘉善县大肠癌世界调整死亡率男女性别分别为 33.27/10 万和 32.40/10 万, 比世界上大肠癌死亡率最高的新西兰还高 在日本, 大肠癌死亡率也以血吸虫病高度流行区的山梨县和久留米县为最高 有统计分析表明日本 Yamanashi( 山梨地区 ) 流行区临床病理资料中日本血吸虫病患者的结肠癌发病率比非血吸虫病患者高 25 倍 埃及血吸虫病主要分布于非洲与东地中海, 而以埃及的埃及血吸虫病合并膀胱癌的感染率为最高 在埃及血吸虫病重流行区马拉维南部地区鳞状细胞型的埃及血吸虫病膀胱癌的发病率比英国高出 35 倍 生化研究显示埃及血吸虫病患者尿中的挥发性与非挥发性亚硝胺含量分别比非血吸虫病患者高 10 倍与 2-4 倍 进一步测定埃及血吸虫病膀胱癌患者膀胱标本的 DNA 损伤, 发现其 DNA 甲基损伤后生成的 O6- 甲基脱氧鸟苷 (O6-MedG) 量显著高于非血吸虫病膀胱癌患者与非膀胱癌患者, 表明血吸虫病膀胱癌患者靶组织已出现癌前变化, 而此种由于 DNA 甲基损伤后形成的修饰碱基与癌的发生发展有着密切的关系 1994 年世界卫生组织国际癌症研究机构已将埃及血吸虫感染与麝猫后睾吸虫感染评定为确 14

15 认人类致癌物 (Group 1), 将华支睾吸虫感染评定为对人很可能致癌 (Group 2A), 将日本血吸虫感染评定为对人可能致癌 (Group 2B) 我国寄生虫病分布广泛, 寄生虫种类各异, 一种寄生虫可以有致癌促癌作用, 另一种则未必有, 而各种肿瘤的病因与发病机制也不尽相同, 因此, 加强研究寄生虫感染与肿瘤的关系, 有助于阐明肿瘤的病因及其发生 发展规律, 从而为寄生虫病与肿瘤的防治提供科学依据 肿瘤的发生与发展是一个多基因 多因素 多阶段的复杂过程, 并与免疫状态有关, 可分为启动 促进与发展三个步骤 诱变因素化学因素 : 如亚硝胺 ; 物理因素 : 如射线 ; 生物因素 : 如乙型肝炎病毒 Epstein-Barr 病毒 幽门螺杆菌 埃及血吸虫等 ; 遗传因素 : 有家族史等易感基因存在的因素 ; 上述各种因素的效应 : 直接或间接作用于细胞靶 DNA, 引起 DNA 损伤 甲基化水平降低等, 导致原癌基因激活与 ( 或 ) 抑癌基因失活, 前者表现为原癌基因的碱基重排 突变 扩增与过度表达, 后者表现为抑癌基因的缺失 表达受限 失去对细胞凋亡的调控, 进而使正常细胞转化为肿瘤细胞 此外, 也可能由于以上多种因素及其降解 活化或代谢产物对宿主靶组织的长期 慢性的累积刺激, 引起炎症细胞及吞噬细胞的激活, 产生诸多细胞因子与自由基及一氧化氮, 引发细胞的脂质过氧化 多胺代谢异常, 刺激细胞分裂导致癌变 寄生虫病在此过程中至少在几方面与肿瘤发生有关 1 引起炎症反应与细胞增生血吸虫病是以宿主对血吸虫虫卵的炎症反应与增殖反应为病理基础, 如肠粘膜与膀胱粘膜分别在日本血吸虫虫卵与埃及血吸虫虫卵刺激下发生脱落 炎症与增生 有研究者认为肠血吸虫病的慢性炎症与上皮增生是发展为大肠癌的一个间接因素, 并强调在免疫功能降低和亚硝胺等致癌物的协同作用下发生大肠癌 有研究认为埃及血吸虫病可作为研究炎症反应与细胞增生在肿瘤发生中的作用的模型 亚硝胺有两个来源, 即外源 ( 如饮食 ) 摄入的与内源合成的 内源的又包括被病灶的炎症细胞与吞噬细胞转化的与被体内细菌转化而成的 测定 27 例埃及血吸虫病病人 23 例埃及血吸虫病合并膀胱癌病人 27 例埃及健康人及 20 例德国健康人尿中的硝酸盐 亚硝酸盐 挥发性亚硝胺及非挥发性亚硝胺含量, 表明两组血 15

16 吸虫病病人尿中的硝酸盐 亚硝酸盐 挥发性亚硝胺与非挥发性亚硝胺含量均显著高于两组健康人 测定 65 例曼氏血吸虫病病人 79 例埃及血吸虫病病人与 27 例健康人, 每人每日尿中排出的硝酸盐与亚硝酸盐量, 其差异均具有显著意义 在血吸虫病流行地区, 由于患者反复感染, 血吸虫虫卵在局部不断沉积, 形成粘膜及粘膜下层的炎症 损害与组织增生, 加上膀胱上皮粘膜长期暴露于致癌物亚硝胺, 为埃及血吸虫病并发膀胱癌创造了环境条件 2 引起染色体异常大多数肿瘤都存在染色体的遗传学改变 有不同的研究者两次在埃及血吸虫病高发区的开罗某地先后选择性别与年龄配对的在同一诊所就诊的男性农民与学龄儿童进行两次微核试验结果发现埃及血吸虫病患者的两次微核发生频率为对照组的 8 倍及 6.1 倍 经给予单剂量吡喹酮 (40mg/kg) 治疗后, 埃及血吸虫病患者的尿卵计数及微核发生频率均显著降低, 表明血吸虫感染与膀胱上皮细胞的染色体断裂增加直接相关, 而吡喹酮治疗具有降低膀胱癌变的作用 3 引起 DNA 甲基化损伤及其修复功能降低 DNA 的甲基化状态是调节基因表达的重要因素,DNA 损伤后, 其甲基化水平降低, 碱基配对功能改变, 最常见的 DNA 损伤是使鸟嘌呤的 O6 位甲基化 形成 O6- 甲基鸟嘌吟 (O6-MedG), 但细胞中有一种酶即 O6- 甲基鸟嘌呤 DNA 甲基转移酶 (O6MedG-AT), 能将甲基从鸟嘌呤的 O6 位上转移到同一蛋白的半胱氨酸残基上, 使鸟嘌呤得以复整, 从而修复已损伤的 DNA 实验表明以不同数量血吸虫尾蚴感染小鼠 30 天后, 测出鼠肝 DNA 的 O6-MedG 含量随感染尾蚴的数量而增高, 二者呈正相关的剂量 - 反应关系, 证明单独感染血吸虫可以引起鼠肝 DNA 发生类似烷化剂所致的甲基化损伤 4 引起基因改变 P53 基因是迄今发现与人类多种肿瘤相关性最高的基因, 约 50% 的人类肿瘤都有 P 基因失活 缺失或其产物的异常表达 曾有研究对 92 例埃及血吸虫病合并膀胱癌患者用 PCR 法扩增后测 P53 突变, 结果发现 30 例突变 (17 例鳞状细胞膀胱癌 8 例移行上皮细胞膀胱癌 4 例腺癌 1 例其他类型膀胱癌 ),16 例为碱基对置换,2 例为碱基丢失,l 例为碱基插入,2 例同时出现各种突变 以上结果表明突变型抑癌基因 P53 与致癌基因 bcl-2 的协同或分别表达导致细胞增殖失控以 16

17 致癌变 曾用免疫细胞化学法证明 31 例埃及血吸虫病合并膀胱癌患者中,P53 的突变率为 55%,c-erbB-2 的突变率为 10% 另有报道 7 例埃及血吸虫病合并膀胱癌患者中,P53 突变率为 86% 5 抑制免疫功能人与动物感染寄生虫后, 机体的细胞与体液免疫功能受到寄生虫抗原作用后出现抑制 表现为 :1 自然杀伤细胞活性 红细胞及中性粒细胞吞噬功能降低 有报道巨脾型晚期血吸虫病患者的外周血自然杀伤细胞活性 红细胞 C3b 受体花环率及中性粒细胞吞噬指数均明显低于正常人, 据此认为会影响患者清除病原及杀伤肿瘤细胞的能力, 并可能与结肠癌与原发性肝癌有关 2 激活抑制性 T 细胞与抑制性巨噬细胞在实验感染热带利什曼原虫的小鼠, 抑制性 T 细胞的免疫抑制作用可以降低宿主的细胞免疫力 ; 在曼氏血吸虫病, 辅助性 T 细胞的活力受到抑制, 宿主对羊红细胞或破伤风类毒素的抗体应答均降低, 小鼠对可溶性虫卵抗原的足垫反应以及淋巴细胞对植物血凝素或刀豆素蛋白 A 刺激的增殖反应均减弱, 表明 T 细胞免疫受到影响 3T 细胞及其亚群的变化 -- 小鼠感染卫氏并殖吸虫后脾细胞中 TH 数减少,T3 数增多,TH/Ts 比值降低, 对 ConA 诱导脾 T 细胞增殖反应受抑制 -- 小鼠感染旋毛虫后,Th/Ts 比值明显降低, 仅及对照鼠的 24.1% -- 囊虫病患者外周血单个核细胞产生 IL-2 水平明显低于正常人, 而血清中 sil-2r 水平明显高于正常人 6 寄生虫及其虫卵本身的作用 四 寄生虫病与肿瘤并存的疾病 A. 日本血吸虫病并发大肠癌 B. 日本血吸虫病并发肝细胞性肝癌 C. 日本血吸虫病并发胃癌 D. 日本血吸虫病并发乳腺癌 F. 埃及血吸虫病并发膀胱癌等 可资利用的寄生虫 一 寄生虫可能诱发一定的抗肿瘤效应 ; 17

18 二 寄生虫可能用于某些人体疾病的治疗 ; -- 人为感染鞭虫治疗克隆氏病 ; -- 蛔虫等基因对肥胖症治疗研究的应用 ; 三 寄生虫可能被用作生物制剂 一 寄生虫感染可诱发一定的抗肿瘤效应 Cutting edge: systemic inhibition of angiogenesis( 血管生成 ) underlies resistance to tumors during acute toxoplasmosis( 弓形虫病 ). The ability of various infections to suppress neoplastic growth ( 新生物 ) has been well documented. This phenomenon has been traditionally attributed to infection-induced concomitant( 伴随物 ), cell-mediated ( 细胞介导的 ) antitumor immunity. Infection with Toxoplasma gondii effectively blocked neoplastic growth of a nonimmunogenic B16.F10 melanoma ( 黑色素瘤 ). Moreover, this effect was independent of cytotoxic T or NK cells, production of NO by macrophages( 巨噬细胞 ), or the function of the cytokines IL-12 and TNF-alpha. These findings suggested that antitumor cytotoxicity was not the primary mechanism of resistance. However, infection was accompanied by strong, systemic suppression of angiogenesis( 血管生成 ), both in a model system and inside the nascent tumor( 初生肿瘤 ). This suppression resulted in severe hypoxia( 组织缺氧 ) and avascular necrosis( 无血管坏死 ) that are incompatible with progressive neoplastic growth. The results identify the suppression of tumor neovascularization as a novel mechanism critical for infection-induced resistance to tumors. 二 寄生虫可能用于某些人体疾病的治疗 国内媒体报道 : 美国微生物学家发现, 一种名叫鞭虫的线状肠道寄生虫可以作为医治炎性 肠病的新方法 不过, 患者必须吞下虫卵 密歇根州立大学微生物学教授曼斯菲尔德近日在接受 兰辛州月刊 采访时说, 炎性肠病 可以引起腹泻 抽筋和肠出血, 有些患者一年腹泻多达 256 次, 病情严重者甚至无法工作 研究人员过去对炎性肠病曾有多种解释, 其中包括摄入脂肪含量高的食物 然而, 曼斯菲 尔德说, 卫生水平逐渐提高也是一种可能的致病原因, 因为部分免疫系统实际上需要周期性 18

19 感染, 才能适当发展 也就是说, 接触一些灰尘 细菌甚至蠕虫也能获益 如果生活在超洁净的环境中, 我们就会清除掉一些对我们免疫系统发展有利的东西, 曼 斯菲尔德说 大约 10 年前, 曼斯菲尔德开始在猪身上研究鞭虫感染, 想找出免疫这种寄生虫的方法 结 果她却发现, 鞭虫感染能够催生强大的抗炎免疫反应, 炎性肠病患者服用这种寄生虫后, 能 够消除炎症, 使免疫系统重新恢复到平衡状态 而且, 猪鞭虫相对安全, 大多数人服用它们数个星期后都能将其排出体外 目前, 这种 鞭虫治疗法 仍在进一步检验中, 然后会送交食品和药物管理局审批 -- 关于研究结果的讨论 A tale of three studies An experiment reported in the journal Gut reports that drinking thousands of pig whipworm eggs( 猪鞭虫卵 ) is effective in reducing abdominal pain, bleeding and diarrhea associated with Crohn s disease( 克隆病 ). Example : Pig whipworms and the need for further study Experiments that test the effectiveness of treatments on actual patients are called clinical trials The clinical trial that suggest a drink of pig whipworms helps Crohn s disease is a one-track clinical design:?impose treatment Measure response?pig whipworms Reduced symptoms Patients did report fewer symptoms after quaffing( 饮尽 ) their worm-egg cocktails! But, there s nothing to compare to. We can t say that the pig whipworms caused this improvement because we haven t compared this treatment to anything else. Could be just a placebo( 安慰剂 ) effect:?many patients respond positively to any treatment at all, including placebos 19

20 The one-track design of this experiment means that the placebo effect is confounded ( 混淆 ) with the possible effect of the whipworm eggs We need to isolate the whipworm egg effect from the possible placebo effect The researchers recognized this To isolate the whipworm egg effect, we need an experiment that randomly assigns patients to one of two treatment regimens( 疗法 ):?A group that receives a placebo treatment?a group that receives the whipworm egg treatment Subjects in both groups would not know what they are getting Physicians evaluating the patients responses would not know what the patient got either This allows disentangling( 分开 ) of the effects of the placebo from the effects of the whipworm egg treatment Will worms really cure Crohn s disease? Crohn's disease is common in highly industrialised Western countries where helminths are rare and uncommon in less developed areas of the world where most people carry worms. Helminths diminish immune responsiveness in naturally colonised humans and reduce inflammation in experimental colitis. Thus exposure to helminths may help prevent or even ameliorate Crohn's disease. The aim of the study was to determine the safety and possible efficacy of the intestinal helminth Trichuris suis in the treatment of patients with active Crohn's disease. Twenty nine patients with active Crohn s disease, defined by a Crohn s disease activity index (CDAI) > or =220 were enrolled in this open label study. All patients ingested 2500 live T. suis ova ( 活的猪鞭虫卵 ) every three weeks for 24 weeks, and disease activity was monitored by CDAI. Remission( 免除 ) was defined as a decrease in CDAI to less than 150 while a response was 20

21 defined as a decrease in CDAI of greater than 100. At week 24, 23 patients (79.3%) responded (decrease in CDAI >100 points or CDAI <150) and 21/29 (72.4%) remitted (CDAI <150). Mean CDAI of responders decreased points below baseline. Analysis at week 12 yielded similar results. There were no adverse events( 副作用 ). This new therapy may offer a unique, safe, and efficacious alternative for Crohn's disease management. These findings also support the premise that natural exposure to helminths such as T. suis affords protection from immunological diseases like Crohn's disease. 肥胖症 : 蛔虫给出答案 一种新方法用来研究人类的肥胖症, 即通过识别蛔虫体内控制脂肪储存和新陈代谢的基因来寻找肥胖的线索 这项研究将发现控制脂肪储存的新基因以及导致肥胖症的基因缺失 美国马萨诸塞总医院研究人员采取的方法是先给蛔虫喂 1.7 万个细菌, 每个细菌包含一种化学物质, 每种化学物质可以阻止一个基因的活动 之后, 研究人员观察当其他基因活动被抑制时脂肪储存基因的改变 他们发现 305 个基因被抑制活动后蛔虫身体脂肪减少,112 个基因在相同情况下导致肥胖 虽然蛔虫和人类的差别很大, 但在 6 亿年前这两种动物有着共同的祖先, 他们的 DNA 排序相似, 功能也差不多 蛔虫体内 100 个控制肥胖的基因在人类体内都能找到相似的基因 这一发现是基因组研究的新里程碑, 也是第一次在单独的实验中完全抑制动物其他基因的活动 三 寄生虫可能被用作生物制剂 新加坡肉孢子虫作为生物灭鼠剂的基础和现场试验 Farmers impressed by the ability of the parasite to kill rodents, but criticised delayed action( 延时 作用 ) of the rodenticide( 灭鼠剂 ) No harmful effects to raptors( 猛禽 ), dogs, cats, chicken during and after the field test. Damage assessment after treatment showed 0.4% ( 新法灭鼠后的损失 ), damage in parasite-treated plot, 1.2% in conventionally treated plot( 常规灭鼠后的损失 ), and 5.5% in untreated plot( 未处理的损失 ). 21

22 寄生虫作为生物资源的潜在利用价值 1. 传统意义上寄生虫资源的利用 1.1 蝇蛆疗法 1.2 蝇蛆等节肢动物某些成分的利用 2. 寄生虫感染与免疫调节 2.1 卫生假说 (hygiene hypothesis) 与寄生虫感染 2.2 寄生虫感染免疫调节的可能机制 3 寄生虫实验感染治疗某些疾病的尝试 3.1 鞭虫治疗克隆病的尝试 3.2 疟疾疗法治疗梅毒 3.3 疟疾疗法治疗人免疫缺陷病毒 (HIV) 感染的实验研究 3.4 美洲钩虫感染实验治疗过敏性哮喘 4 寄生虫感染的非特异性抗肿瘤效应 4.1 弓形虫感染与非特异性抗肿瘤效应 4.2 疟原虫的预感染与抗肿瘤效应 5 寄生虫虫体材料及相关分子在寄生虫病实验诊断及疫苗研制中的应用 5.1 免疫诊断与疫苗研制 5.2 在其他方面的应用 : 提高检出阳性率 / 免疫交叉反应性的利用等 6 寄生虫在有害生物控制中的潜在应用价值 7. 在其他方面的利用某些医学昆虫的发育具有规律的时间特点, 被称之为天然时间表作为生态系统的生物标志物作为特殊生理生化代谢等生命现象的模型 在哪些领域可能利用寄生虫? 寄生虫对宿主行为的影响 22

23 一 寄生虫影响宿主行为的现象二 寄生虫对宿主行为的影响 -- 与人体寄生有关的虫种 -- 某些动物寄生虫对其宿主行为的影响三 寄生虫影响宿主行为的可能机制从一部韩国电影说起 铁线虫入侵 影片讲述了上班族宰赫在人类遭遇寄生虫威胁不断死去的危机情况下, 与身为警察的弟弟一同奋力拯救家人的故事 -- 为何会有此创意? -- 铁线虫 在哪儿? -- 为何是 变种虫? -- 与 世界末日 有何关系? 铁线虫成虫栖息于河流 池塘及水沟内, 雌体所产的卵在水内孵出幼虫, 被昆虫或人类吃进后, 开始寄生生活 当这种虫被大型节肢动物如螳螂 蝗虫等吞食后, 幼虫在其体内继续发育, 会逐渐控制宿主的行为, 幼虫成长为成虫时, 会控制宿主寻找水源淹死宿主后从宿主体内钻出 铁线虫 因而该电影的出笼 : -- 关于铁线虫的生物学认识 ; -- 作家的想象力 ; -- 另类影迷的存在 / 电影业界的成功预期 ; -- 关键因素 : 寄生生物改变宿主行为的客观现象 一 寄生虫影响宿主行为的现象二 寄生虫对宿主行为的影响 -- 与人体寄生有关的虫种 -- 某些动物寄生虫对其宿主行为的影响三 寄生虫影响宿主行为的可能机制 1. 与人体有关的虫种 - 弓形虫 23

24 寄生虫刚地弓形虫 (Toxoplasma gondii) 是一种 疯狂的原生动物, 存活于大多数的温血动物中, 但是它却更喜欢生活在老鼠体内进行两性繁殖 为了返回它的猫科动物栖息地, 它能够操纵被它感染的老鼠和其它动物的行为 比如说, 它能够让老鼠不惧猫尿的气味, 甚至会出现两性间的吸引 研究人员迈克尔 - 艾森在他的博客中写道 : 为了完成弓形虫的生命循环, 一只受感染的动物必须被猫吃掉 这就会产生利益冲突, 弓形虫想要它的宿主被猫吃掉, 而宿主则宁愿不被猫吃掉 但是它是如何实现这种邪恶的心灵控制的呢? 艾森的学生温蒂 - 英格兰姆刚刚完成了一项最新的研究, 她的研究发现这种寄生虫能够导致老鼠永久性的不怕猫, 即使是猫尿的一丁点味道也会引起永久性的兴奋 艾森在写道 : 这种行为影响是寄生虫对大脑特定部位的直接物理作用导致的结果 所有的这些都让我沉思 : 弓形虫有可能是导致人们如此喜爱猫的原因吗? 所有的爱猫人都会出现寄生虫导致的大脑混乱吗? 它会使我们想要被猫吃掉吗? 这些问题令人深思 研究发现弓形虫能够对老鼠大脑特定部位产生影响, 改变老鼠对猫的恐惧 据认为类似情况也见于其他生物关系 2. 与人体有关的虫种 - 疟原虫 Science: 疟原虫触发人体产生吸引蚊子的气味科学家可能发现了疟疾感染者招引蚊子的部分原因 疟疾是经蚊子叮咬或输入带疟原虫者的血液而感染疟原虫所引起的虫媒传染病 蚊子喜欢叮咬已感染上疟疾的人, 而且明显是由某种气味引起的 如今, 在一项新的研究中, 瑞典研究人员说, 他们鉴定出疟原虫分泌出的一种物质触发人体产生这种气味, 而且这种气味仅为蚊子所察觉到 相关研究结果于 2017 年 2 月 9 日在线发表在 Science 期刊上, 论文标题为 A key malaria metabolite modulates vector blood seeking, feeding, and susceptibility to infection 瑞典研究人员报道, 在血液中, 疟原虫释放一种特定的物质, 即类异戊二烯前体分子 : (E)-4- 羟基 -3- 甲基 - 丁 -2- 烯基焦磷酸 (HMBPP) 这种物质与疟疾感染者的血细胞混合在一起, 从而产生一种似乎特别吸引蚊子的芳香气味 在这项研究中, 瑞典研究人员小心翼翼地释放上百只蚊子 ( 逐只地释放 ) 到一个 Y 型三通管中 这个 Y 型三通管中加有混合这种疟疾物质的人血液, 或者人血液 大约 95% 的蚊子直接飞入到混合这种疟疾物质的人血液中 24

25 据认为, 人们可能有朝一日制造出这种吸引蚊子的芳香物质人工合成版本, 从而引诱和杀死这些蚊子 某些动物寄生虫对其宿主行为的影响 1. 瓢虫与瓢虫茧蜂 : 被瓢虫茧蜂感染的瓢虫绝对是交上了厄运 母茧蜂螫了瓢虫后, 会留下一颗卵 卵孵化后, 幼虫就开始由里而外啃噬宿主 之后逸出瓢虫虫体, 在其足之间结茧 2. 寄生扁虫 Ribeiroia ondatrae 与美洲牛蛙 Lithobates catesbeianus 扁虫 Ribeiroia ondatrae 在蜗牛体内无性繁殖后, 幼虫会找只牛蛙的蝌蚪, 从它的皮肤钻进去, 在牛蛙发育中的四肢周围制造胞囊 牛蛙的脚会因此变多 变少或畸形, 因此行动笨拙, 很容易成为苍鹭等吃青蛙的鸟的猎物 寄生虫进入苍鹭体内后就开始有性繁殖 它们的卵经由鸟粪再次进入水中, 感染新的蜗牛, 开始下一个循环 一 寄生虫影响宿主行为的现象二 寄生虫对宿主行为的影响 -- 与人体寄生有关的虫种 -- 某些动物寄生虫对其宿主行为的影响三 寄生虫影响宿主行为的可能机制 从弓形虫看改变宿主行为的机制 Tropism( 趋向性 ) to specific regions of the brain ( 意指 : 弓形虫侵入脑组织时的特定区域的趋向性 ) Disruption of dopamine( 多巴胺 ) signaling in the brain ( 脑组织多巴胺信号通路的破坏 ) Hormonal( 激素的 ) upheavals( 剧变 ) and concomitant epigenetic( 表观遗传的 ) changes Rats and mice infected with toxoplasma exhibit behavioral change in their aversion( 厌恶 )to cat odor and their sexual attractiveness( 吸引力 ) to females. Previous work has resulted in three main classes of hypotheses pertaining to proximate mechanism of this phenomenon. 25

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