Fundamentals of Cancer Prevention

Transcription

1 Fundamentals of Cancer Prevention

2 David S. Alberts. Lisa M. Hess Fundamentals of Cancer Prevention Second Edition

3 David S. Alberts, M.D. University of Arizona Lisa M. Hess, Ph.D. University of Arizona ISBN: e-isbn: DOI: / Library of Congress Control Number: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Product liability: The publishers cannot guarantee the accuracy of any information about dosage and application contained in this book. In every individual case the user must check such information by consulting the relevant literature. Cover design: Frido Steimen-Broo, estudio Calamar, Spain Printed on acid-free paper springer.com

4 David S. Alberts, M.D. I would like to dedicate this book to my beautiful wife of 45 years, Heather, who has taught me to walk the talk of cancer prevention everyday of my life, and to my magnificent grandchildren, Sammy, Sophie, Sydney, Emma and Tate, who I am certain will carry the banner of health promotion through the century for a much healthier society. Lisa M. Hess, Ph.D. I would like to dedicate this book to my precious daughter, Rachael, who every moment teaches me the value of health and the beauty of life.

5 1 Introduction to Cancer Prevention D.S. Alberts, L.M. Hess 1.1 Summary of Changes to Second Edition Overview of Cancer Prevention Primary Prevention Secondary Prevention Tertiary Prevention Multi-Step Carcinogenesis Pathway Cancer Prevention Research References Assessing Human and Economic Benefits of Cancer Prevention S.J. Coons, B.M. Craig 2.1 Outcomes Assessment Humanistic Outcomes Measuring Health-Related Quality of Life and Other Patient-Reported Outcomes Specific Measures Generic or General Measures Economic Outcomes and Cancer Defining and Measuring Economic Outcomes Evaluative and Descriptive Analyses in Cancer Prevention vii

6 viii 2.7 Conclusion References The Role of Diet, Physical Activity and Body Composition in Cancer Prevention C.A. Thomson, Z. Chen 3.1 Introduction Recommendations for Cancer Prevention: Body Weight, Diet, and Physical Activity Diet and Cancer Prevention: Review of Evidence Clearing the Muddied Waters: The Need for Improved Study Designs Physical Activity and Cancer Prevention Body Weight and Body Composition and Cancer Prevention Lifestyle and Cancer Survivorship Body Weight and Cancer Survival Survivorship and Diet Physical Activity and Cancer Survivorship Optimizing Bone Health Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis Modified by Lifestyle Factors Biological Mechanisms by Which Physical Activity May Reduce Cancer Risk Advancing the Guidelines for Cancer Preventive Lifestyle Tools for Research and Clinical Practice Measuring Diet Assessment of Physical Activity and Energy Expenditure Measurement of Body Composition Measurement of Bone Health Conclusion References Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses to Cancer K.T. Hastings 4.1 Importance of the Immune System in Cancer Prevention Innate Immune Responses to Cancer Natural Killer Cells Gamma-Delta T Cells Phagocytes Cytokines Adaptive Immune Response Recognition of Tumor Antigens Tumor Antigens

7 ix T Lymphocytes B Lymphocytes Cytokines Immunotherapy for Cancer Prevention References Hereditary Risk for Cancer K.S. Hunt, J.A. Ray 5.1 Cancer as a Genetic Disorder Molecular Genetics Tumor Suppressor Genes Oncogenes DNA Repair Genes Epigenetic Mechanisms Cancer as a Hereditary Disease Common Hereditary Cancer Syndromes Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Cowden Syndrome Li Fraumeni Syndrome CHEK Ataxia-Telangiectasis Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer Familial Adenomatous Polyposis Attenuated Familial Adenomatous Polyposis Peutz Jeghers Syndrome Hereditary Diffuse Gastric Cancer Genetic Counseling Cancer Risk Assessment Models Epidemiologic Models of Breast Cancer Risk Genetic Testing Models Informed Consent Prior to Genetic Testing Genetic Testing Genetic Testing for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Genetic Testing for Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colon Cancer Genetic Testing for Familial Adenomatous Polyposis Genetic Testing for Attenuated FAP Cancer Screening, Surveillance and Prophylactic Management for Hereditary Cancer Syndromes Prevention Strategies for Hereditary Breast/Ovarian Cancer Prevention Strategies for Hereditary Colorectal Cancer Syndromes Prophylactic Surgery Chemoprevention Conclusion References

8 x 6 Human Categories and Health: The Power of the Concept of Ethnicity K. Coe, C.T. Palmer 6.1 Introduction Background Race and the Failure of Attempts to Define Ethnicity The Interactive View of Human Development Biologic, Genetic and Environmental Learned and Innate Heritability and Inheritable Cultural Traditional The Interactive View of Development and Health Identifying Ethnicity Using Proxy Measures Ethnicity and Health Applications to Disparity Research Conclusion References Complementary and Alternative Approaches to Cancer Prevention L.K. Larkey, H. Greenlee, L.E. Mehl-Madrona 7.1 CAM and Cancer Prevention Research Botanical Agents: Foods, Spices, and Herbs Curcumin Green Tea Immune Modulating Mushrooms Ginseng Flaxseed The Mind Body Connection Coping and Immunity Psychological States, Interventions, and Cancer Wellness Indigenous Cultural Systems of Healing Ayurveda Native American Healing Traditions Energy Medicine Conclusions References Telemedicine in Cancer Prevention A.M. Lopez, L. Kreykes 8.1 What is Telemedicine? Telemedicine in Cancer Care Primary Cancer Prevention

9 xi Smoking Prevention Nutrition Counseling Exercise Education Genetic Counseling Psychosocial Support Secondary Prevention Breast Cancer Cervical Cancer Skin Cancer Colorectal Cancer Prostate Cancer Telepathology Educating the Community Health Worker Future Directions References The Drug Development Process N.E. McKenzie 9.1 Selecting New Molecular Entities for Development as Chemopreventive Agents Regulatory Requirements and the US Food and Drug Administration The Investigational New Drug Application Phases of Clinical Research Good Clinical Practice The New Drug Application Conclusion References Developing Topical Prodrugs for Skin Cancer Prevention E.L. Jacobson, H. Kim, M. Kim, G.T. Wondrak, M.K. Jacobson 10.1 Strategies for Intervention Strategy 1: Preventing DNA Damage Strategy 2: Enhancing DNA Repair Strategy 3: Preventing Photoimmune Suppression Strategy 4: Enhancing the Epidermal Barrier Innovative Agents for Skin Cancer Prevention are Needed Topical Delivery: The Cornerstone of a Skin Damage Prevention Strategy Developing a Niacin Prodrug as a Potential Skin Cancer Prevention Agent Clinical Development of Tetradecyl Nicotinate (Nia-114) Summary References

10 xii 11 Skin Cancer Prevention M. Lluria-Prevatt, D.S. Alberts 11.1 Epidemiology of Skin Cancer Risk Factors Ultraviolet Radiation Exposure Other Risk Factors Genetic Alterations in NMSC Genetic Alterations in Melanoma Screening and Early Detection Prevention of Skin Cancer Primary Prevention Secondary Prevention Targeting Precursor Lesions for Chemoprevention Molecular Targets for Chemoprevention Identified in UVR Signaling Pathways Animal Models for Studying Chemoprevention Agents Endpoints for Evaluating Efficacy of Chemoprevention Agents Potential Chemoprevention Agents for Skin Cancer Conclusion References Colorectal Cancer Prevention A. Ismail, E. Gerner, P. Lance 12.1 Epidemiology Risk Factors Physical Activity Family History of Colorectal Adenoma or Colorectal Carcionoma Inflammatory Bowel Disease Other Risk Factors Screening and Early Detection Fecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT) Flexible Sigmoidoscopy Barium Enema Colonoscopy History of CRAs or CRC Inflammatory Bowel Disease FAP and HNPCC Kindreds First-Degree Relatives of People with CRAs or CRCs Emerging Screening Tests Fecal DNA Virtual Colonoscopy Chemoprevention

11 xiii Fiber Folate Polymorphisms are Alternative Alleles of a Gene Calcium Selenium Aspirin and Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs Ursodeoxycholic Acid Current Status of CRC Chemoprevention References Lung Cancer Prevention I. Hakim, L. Garland 13.1 The Epidemiology of Lung Cancer Trends in Tobacco Use in the United States The Narrowing of the Gender Gap in Smoking Prevalence Demographic Variables and Tobacco Use Etiology of Lung Carcinogenesis Oxidative Damage Cell Proliferation and Lung Carcinogenesis Apoptosis and Lung Carcinogenesis Genetic Factors in Carcinogen Metabolism DNA Hypermethylation and Lung Carcinogenesis Risk Factors for Lung Cancer Tobacco Products Environmental Exposures Family History Genetic Susceptibility Screening for Early Detection Preneoplasia and Intraepithelial Neoplasia Standard Chest X-Rays and Sputum Cytology Helical Computed Tomography National Early Detection Initiatives Chemoprevention Chemopreventive Agents Under Investigation Dietary Supplements Selenium Tea and Derivatives Conclusion References Breast Cancer Prevention P.A. Thompson, A.T. Stopeck 14.1 Introduction Etiology

12 xiv 14.3 Changing Patterns of Breast Cancer Incidence Established Breast Cancer Risk Factors Age, Gender and Breast Cancer Risk Family History of Breast Cancer Reproductive Risk Factors Endogenous Hormone Exposures Exogenous Hormone Exposures Prior Breast Health History Lifestyle Risk Factors Risk Factors and Tumor Subtypes Emerging Breast Cancer Risk Factors for Patient Management Environmental Risk Factors Screening and Early Detection Breast Self Exam (BSE) and Clinical Breast Exam (CBE) Mammography Alternative Screening Modalities and Future Directions Primary Prevention of Breast Cancer Chemoprevention Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (Serms) Aromatase Inhibitors Retinoids Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (Nsaids) Other Agents Risk Assessment and Clinical Applications Elevated Risk Risk Assessment Models Conclusion References Prostate Cancer Prevention S. Stratton, F. Ahmann 15.1 Prevention of Prostate Carcinogenesis Epidemiology and Risk Factors Risk Factors Screening Molecular Markers of Prostate Carcinogenesis Prevention Strategies Androgen Inhibitors Selenium and Vitamin E Soy Isoflavones Cox-2 Inhibitors Milk Thistle Saw Palmetto Resveratrol

13 xv 15.7 Conclusion References Cervical Cancer Prevention F. Garcia, T. Nuno, A.L. Mitchell 16.1 Incidence and Mortality of Cervical Cancer Etiology of Cervical Cancer Natural History of Cervical Cancer Co-Factors for Cervical Cancer Viral Persistence Screening and Early Detection of Cervical Cancer Cytologic Screening HPV Testing Therapeutic Approach to Precursor Lesions of Cervical Cancer Novel Agents for Cervical Cancer Prevention Chemopreventive Agents Therapeutic Vaccines HPV Prophylactic Vaccines Conclusion References Ovarian Cancer Prevention S.K. Chambers, L.M. Hess 17.1 Epidemiology Histopathology Risk Factors for Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Early Detection and Prevention of Ovarian Cancer Chemoprevention of Ovarian Cancer Quality of Life Conclusion References Endometrial Cancer Prevention F. Garcia, S.K. Chambers 18.1 Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Types of Endometrial Cancer Risk Factors for Endometrial Cancer Genetic Factors in Endometrial Cancer Screening and Early Detection of Endometrial Cancer Conclusion References

14 xvi 19 Cancer Survivorship R. Krouse, N.M. Aziz 19.1 Prevalence Survivorship as a Scientific Discipline Prevention Smoking Cessation Acute Effects of Treatment Chemotherapy Surgery Radiation Therapy Long-Term and Late Effects of Cancer Treatment Generalizations Physiologic Sequelae of Cancer and Its Treatment Advanced Illness Future Directions References Index

15 List of Contributors Frederick Ahmann David S. Alberts University of Arizona Noreen Aziz Office of Cancer Survivorship DCCPS, NCI 6130 EPN, Room 4090 Bethesda, MD Setsuko K. Chambers Zhao Chen Kathryn Coe Stephen Joel Coons Benjamin Craig xvii

16 xviii List of Contributors Francisco Garcia 1501 N. Campbell Avenue P.O. Box Linda Garland Eugene Gerner Heather Greenlee Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health 722 West 168th Street New York, NY Iman Hakim Karen Taraszka Hastings College of Medicine Phoenix University of Arizona in Partnership with Arizona State University Phoenix, AZ Lisa M. Hess University of Arizona Katherin Hunt Mayo Clinic E. Shea Blvd. Desk CR Scottsdale, AZ Ayaaz Ismail Myron K. Jacobson Hyuntae Kim Moonsun Kim

17 List of Contributors xix Lindsay Kreykes Robert Krouse Southern Arizona Veterans Affairs Health Care System Peter Lance Linda Larkey N. 92nd St Suite 100 Scottsdale, AZ Maria Lluria-Prevatt Ana Maria Lopez Naja McKenzie Lewis Mehl-Madrona Amy L. Mitchell University of Arizona Center of Excellence in Women s Health Thomas Nuno University of Arizona Center of Excellence in Women s Health Craig T. Palmer Department of Anthropology University of Missouri-Columbia Columbia, MO 65211

18 xx List of Contributors Jessica A. Ray Cancer Prevention and Control Alison Stopeck Suzanne Stratton Cynthia Thomson Patricia Thompson G.T. Wondrak