Chapter 12 The Cell Cycle

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1 Chapter 12 The Cell Cycle

2 Objectives Describe how cell reproduction contributes to repair and growth. Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell division. Compare and contrast asexual and sexual reproduction.

3 Why do cells divide? Cell division allows unicellular organisms to 1 reproduce and is necessary to the 2 growth and 3 repair of multicellular organisms.

4 Asexual reproduction Process in which a single cell or set of cells produces offspring that inherit all their genetic material from one parent. Offspring are not diverse.

5 Types of Asexual Reproduction 1. Binary Fission 2. Budding 3. Gemmules (Internal Buds) 4. Fragmentation 5. Regeneration

6 Binary Fission A type of asexual reproduction in which a prokaryote replicates DNA, and divides in half, producing two identical daughter cells.

7 Binary Fission 1 circular DNA molecule (nucleoid) Cell septum FtsZ molecule similar to eukaryotic tubulin

8 Budding Offspring grows out of body of parent. Yeast (Unicellular fungi) Hydra (Multicellular cnidarian)

9 Budding (Yeast) Ring of chitin develops. Enzymatic activity and turgor pressure weaken and extrude cell wall. Cell contents are forced into the progeny cell Mitosis ends and cell plate forms.

10 Gemmules (Internal Buds) Parent releases a specialized mass of cells that can develop into offspring. Freshwater sponges exhibit this type of reproduction.

11 Fragmentation Body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each of which can produce an offspring. Planarians exhibit this type of reproduction.

12 Regeneration In this form, if a piece of a parent is detached, it can grow and develop into a completely new individual. Echinoderms exhibit this type of reproduction.

13 Sexual reproduction Process in which genetic material from two parents combines and produces offspring that differ genetically from either parent. Leads to diversity in offspring.

14 Cell Growth, Development & Repair

15 How Eukaryotic Cells Divide Objectives Describe the structure of a chromosome. Name the stages of the cell cycle and explain what happens during each stage.

16 Discovery of Chromosomes Walther Fleming 1882 Coined term mitosis

17 Chromosome Number Varies from one species to another. Some have only 1 pair Most eukaryotes between chromosomes.

18 Chromosome Structure Composed of chromatin (40% DNA + 60% protein) Human chromosome nucleotides Single chromosome = 5 cm (2 long)

19 Chromosomal Organization

20 The Cell Cycle How often a cell divides depends on the type of cell. Eukaryotic cells that do divide undergo an orderly sequence of events known as the cell cycle.

21 The Cell Cycle Interphase G 1 (Gap 1 ) S (DNA Synthesis) G 2 (Gap 2 ) Mitotic (M) Phase Cytokinesis

22 The Cell Cycle

23 Cell Cycle Duration Varies among organisms and by type of cells within organisms. Tissues/cells Liver > 1 year Nerve and Muscle Stuck in G 0 Organisms Fruit Fly = 8 minutes Mammals = 24 hours

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25 Interphase G 1, S, G 2 Preparing for Mitosis

26 G 1 and G 2 Periods of Active Growth Proteins synthesized Cell organelles produced

27 S phase Genetic material (chromosomes) duplicate)

28 Homologous Chromosomes vs. Sister Chromatids

29 Kinetochores

30 G 2 Condensation of chromosomes begins Motor protein production begins Centrioles replicate (animal cells only) Tubulin production increases Organelles reproduce

31 The Mitotic Phase BioFlix: Mitosis

32 Mitotic Phase Unique to eukaryotes Includes karyokinesis and cytokinesis Very accurate (error rate 1/100,000 cell divisions)

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38 Cytokinesis Process by which the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is divided in two; usually follows mitosis and meiosis. Animation: Cytokinesis

39 Karyokinesis Process by which the nucleus of a cell is divided in two.

40 Cytokinesis in animal cells Actin filaments constrict cell to create a cleavage furrow

41 Cytokinesis in plant cells Cell wall too rigid for actin filaments to constrict cell. Cell plate created instead.

42 How cytokinesis differs in plants

43 Mitosis in plants

44 Cytokinesis in Unicellular Protists (Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, Yeast) Nuclear membrane remains intact. Mitosis occurs entirely within the nucleus. Nucleus and cell divides after mitosis.

45 Cytokinesis in Unicellular Protists (Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, Yeast) Dinoflagellates Diatoms & Yeast Bacteria Eukaryotes

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47 Molecular Mechanisms of Cell Cycle Control Primary mechanism is phosyphorylation. kinases add phosphates phosphatases remove phosphates Enzymes that accomplish are cyclin-dependent kinases

48 Cyclin-Dependent Kinases Enzymatic subunit partnered with the protein cyclin. Only active when properly phosphorylated One site activates Other site inactivates

49 General Cell Cycle Control 2 irreversible points in cell cycle Replication of genetic material Separation of sister chromatids Can be put on hold at specific checkpoints G 1 /S (aka Restriction Point) G 2 /M M (Spindle) Checkpoint

50 Cell Cycle Control M (Spindle) checkpoint M

51 G 1 /S Checkpoint Factors To divide or not to divide that is the question... Influenced by Internal & External Factors Internal Nutritional state of cell Cell size Intact genome External growth factors

52 G 2 /M Checkpoint Factors Assesses success of DNA replication Sensitive to disruption or delay of DNA replication or DNA damage CDK s active here (cyclin-dependent kinases) *MPF * MPF (M-phase-promoting-factor) the CDK that acts here.

53 M (Spindle) Checkpoint Insures connection of chromosomes to the spindle CDK s are active here

54 M Checkpoint (Spindle Checkpoint) Before second irreversible step in cell cycle (anaphase separation of sister chromatids) Ensures all chromosomes are Present at metaphase plate Aligned properly Connected to spindle Seems to involve tension between opposite poles APC protease destroys cohesin complex of sister chromatids.

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56 Multicellular Eukaryots Multiple CDK s involved. Response from greater variety of external signals. Cell proliferation must be limited (controlled)

57 Growth Factors Trigger intracellular signaling systems. Override cellular controls that inhibit cell division. > 50 identified (proteins) Specific cell surface receptor for each

58 G 0 Phase G 0 = G 1 checkpoint Results from lack of growth factors Accounts for diversity of cell cycle length. > 50 identified (proteins)

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60 Cancer Many different diseases Cancer uncontrolled growth of cells. A failure of cell division control

61 Cancer and Control of Cell Proliferation p53 gene (involved in G 1 checkpoint) product, p53 protein Monitors integrity of DNA Halts cell division, directs DNA repair or apoptosis. Cigarette smoking causes mutation in p53 gene

62 Cancer - Loss of Cell Cycle Control Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body s control mechanisms Cancer cells may not need growth factors to grow and divide: May make their own growth factor May convey a growth factor s signal without the presence of the growth factor May have an abnormal cell cycle control system

63 Cancer Terms Transformation Process by which a normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell Tumor - mass abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue Benign tumor - Abnormal cells remain at the original site Malignant tumors cells invade surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of body. Metastasize - exporting of cancer cells to other parts of the body where they may form secondary tumors

64 Fig Tumor Lymph vessel Blood vessel Glandular tissue Cancer cell Metastatic tumor 1 A tumor grows 2 Cancer cells 3 Cancer cells spread 4 from a single invade neighboring tissue. the to other parts of cancer cell. body. Cancer cells may survive and establish a new tumor in another part of the body.

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