Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecules

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1 Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecules Title: Sep 3 4:37 PM (1 of 65)

2 macromolecules = smaller organic molecules that are joined together to make larger molecules four major classes: proteins carbohydrates lipids nucleic acids Title: Sep 3 4:39 PM (2 of 65)

3 Polymer principles most macromolecules are polymers polymers= many similar or identical building blocks linked together by covalent bonds each unit repeated is a monomer cells can make and break polymers by reactions condensation/dehydration reaction = connect monomers together requires energy aided by enzymes water is taken out Title: Sep 3 4:41 PM (3 of 65)

4 Example of a condensation reaction Example of a hydrolysis reaction Title: Sep 3 4:47 PM (4 of 65)

5 Hydrolysis reaction = breaks the covalent bonds between the monomers of a polymer water is used to break apart polymers used greatly in the digestive system aided by enzymes Title: Sep 3 4:47 PM (5 of 65)

6 Carbohydrates Function fuel and building material include sugars and polymers monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides Title: Sep 3 4:51 PM (6 of 65)

7 Monosaccharides = simple sugars general molecular formula = CH O ex. glucose C H O most sugars end in ose have a carbonyl group and many hydroxyl groups if carbonyl gp is at end = aldose if not = ketose classified by number of carbons in backbone ie. glucose = hexose five carbons = pentoses three carbons = trioses can exist as enantiomers ie. glucose and galactose Title: Sep 3 7:09 PM (7 of 65)

8 Title: Sep 4 2:00 PM (8 of 65)

9 function of monosaccharides a. fuel = glucose b. for synthesis of other monomers ie. amino acids fatty acids joined together by glycosidic linkage to form a disaccharide (dehydration reaction) in aqueous solutions tend to form ring structures Title: Sep 3 7:13 PM (9 of 65)

10 glucose galactose Title: Sep 4 2:00 PM (10 of 65)

11 linear vs. ring structure of glucose Title: Sep 4 2:02 PM (11 of 65)

12 Disaccharides made from two monosaccharides examples maltose (malt sugar) = 2 glucoses sucrose (table sugar) = glucose and fructose Title: Sep 3 7:15 PM (12 of 65)

13 Polysaccharides = polymers of hundreds/thousands of monosaccharides (1 4 glycosidic linkages) store energy broken down to release energy are building materials for cell/organism starch= storage polysaccharide stored in plants in plastids glycogen = stored polysaccharide of glucose in liver and muscles (1 day supply) main monomer in polysaccharides is glucose Title: Sep 3 7:18 PM (13 of 65)

14 cellulose =polysaccharide in plant cell wall insoluble in humans no enzymes to break down beta linkages helps to stimulate mucus production in digestive tract cellulase digests cellulose in some organisms chitin=polysaccharide used in exoskeletons of arthropods and cell walls of fungi Title: Sep 3 9:55 PM (14 of 65)

15 Title: Sep 4 2:03 PM (15 of 65)

16 Title: Sep 4 2:04 PM (16 of 65)

17 Title: Sep 4 2:06 PM (17 of 65)

18 cellulose Title: Sep 4 2:07 PM (18 of 65)

19 use of chitin in exoskeletons of insects and suture thread Title: Sep 4 2:08 PM (19 of 65)

20 Lipids do not have polymers do not like water; have non polar covalent bonds are large molecules Fat = made of glycerol and fatty acids glycerol = 3 C skeleton with OH group attached to each C fatty acids = COOH gp. attached to long C skeleton Title: Sep 3 10:00 PM (20 of 65)

21 Title: Sep 4 2:10 PM (21 of 65)

22 ex. triacylglycerol = 3 fatty acids + glycerol joined by an ester linkage fatty acids can be same or different can have double bonds in different places Saturated fatty acid = no double bonds; maximum # of hydrogens attached are straight chains unsaturated fatty acid=has double bonds due to hydrogens being removed are kinked chains where double bonds located Title: Sep 3 10:07 PM (22 of 65)

23 Title: Sep 4 2:10 PM (23 of 65)

24 Saturated fats found in animal fats solid at rm. temp. can contribute to heart disease Unsaturated fats are plant, fish fats aka = oils liquid at rm. temp. can't pack tightly together due to kinks function = energy storage = cushion organs = insulation Title: Sep 3 10:10 PM (24 of 65)

25 Phospholipids glycerol with two fatty acids and a phosphate gp. (neg. charge) has hydrophobic tail end (fatty acids) has hydrophilic head end (phosphate gp) Title: Sep 3 10:15 PM (25 of 65)

26 if put in water tails point inward away from water to form a micelle bilayer arrangement in cell membrane (major components) Title: Sep 3 10:20 PM (26 of 65)

27 Steroids = lipids with carbon skeleton (four fused carbon rings) can have different functional gps. added cholesterol in cell membranes precursor for all other steroids high levels lead to cardiovascular disease Title: Sep 3 10:20 PM (27 of 65)

28 Proteins functions= structural support, storage, transport of substances, cell signaling, movement, defense mechanisms structurally complex 3D shape all made from 20 amino acids polypeptides = polymers of proteins protein= one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific conformation Title: Sep 3 10:24 PM (28 of 65)

29 Title: Sep 4 2:14 PM (29 of 65)

30 Amino acid four components around a carbon hydrogen atom carboxyl group amino group R group (differences in these make the different amino acids character of R group determine characteristics of the amino acid Title: Sep 3 10:29 PM (30 of 65)

31 R groups can be: 1. hydrophobic 2. hydrophilic 3. bases 4. acids amino acids are joined by a dehydration reaction to form peptide bonds at one end of chain is a carboxyl group and the other end is a amino group can be very long chains Title: Sep 3 10:32 PM (31 of 65)

32 Title: Sep 4 2:15 PM (32 of 65)

33 Title: Sep 16 3:10 PM (33 of 65)

34 Title: Sep 4 2:17 PM (34 of 65) making a polypeptide

35 Protein Function depends on specific conformation order of amino acids determines 3D conformation (emergent property) relys on ability to recognize and bind to another molecule when it binds it helps a chemical reaction Title: Sep 4 11:56 AM (35 of 65)

36 Levels of protein structure Primary structure= the sequence of the amino acids determined by the inherited genetic information Lysozyme (enzyme that attacks bacteria) made of polypeptide of 129 amino acids hard to predict the 3D structure based on amino acid sequence alone Title: Sep 4 12:00 PM (36 of 65)

37 Title: Sep 4 2:18 PM (37 of 65) Primary structure of a protein

38 sickle cell anemia = abnormal hemoglobin develops due to a single amino acid change from hemoglobin Title: Sep 4 2:20 PM (38 of 65)

39 secondary structure = results from hydrogen bonds along the polypeptide backbone two types: 1. coils (an alpha helix) right handed coil, R groups extend outward from backbone, hydrogen of N H of one amino acid is attracted to the oxygen of C=O of another Title: Sep 4 12:06 PM (39 of 65)

40 2. folds (a beta pleated sheets) formed from two or more polypeptide chains that are extended and lying next to each other stabilized by hydrogen bonds between N H gps on one chain and C=O on the other ex. silk's structural properties are due to beta pleated sheets (lots of hydrogen bonds) Title: Sep 4 1:05 PM (40 of 65)

41 Title: Sep 4 2:24 PM (41 of 65) spider's silk protein

42 Tertiary structure determined by interactions among and between the R groups and the polypeptide backbone include weak interactions: hydrogen bonds among polar and/or charged areas ionic bonds between charged R groups hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals interactions among hydrophobic R groups strong covalent bonds disulfide bridges that are between sulfhydryl groups (SH) of cysteine mononers = stabilize the structure Title: Sep 4 12:10 PM (42 of 65)

43 Title: Sep 4 2:25 PM (43 of 65) Tertiary structure

44 Quarternary Structure happens due to two or more polypeptide subunits coming together Ex. collagen found in connective tissue (tendons, ligaments) fibrous protein of three polypeptides supercoiled like a rope hemoglobin globular protein with two copies of two kinds of polypeptides Title: Sep 4 12:19 PM (44 of 65)

45 Title: Sep 4 2:27 PM (45 of 65) Quarternary structure

46 Title: Sep 4 2:28 PM (46 of 65) Review of protein structure

47 Physical and chemical conditions can change the conformation of the protein ph, salt concentration, temperature and other factors can denature (change the conformation of) the protein break the hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and disulfide bridges that hold the shape together some proteins can get back their shape, others can't Title: Sep 4 12:23 PM (47 of 65)

48 Effect on protein temperature increases molecular movements so breaks hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions ph changes pattern of ionization of carboxyl and amino groups in R groups; disrupts ionic attractions and repulsions high conc. of polar substances disrupts hydrogen bonds Title: Sep 4 12:57 PM (48 of 65)

49 Title: Sep 4 2:29 PM (49 of 65)

50 proteins undergo intermediate changes before they reach quarternary structure chaperonins=proteins that shield out bad influences while the protein structure is being made (form a "cage" until folded properly) protein is vulnerable 1. following denaturation, hydrophobic gps on inside are exposed to outside,so can bind and form aggregates that are insoluble 2. when a protein is just being made and has not folded correctly Title: Sep 4 12:27 PM (50 of 65)

51 Title: Sep 4 2:29 PM (51 of 65) How chaperonins work

52 X ray crystallography tool used to look at protein structure form crystal then hit it with x rays pattern of diffraction by the atoms can determine the location of the atoms and a computer then builds a structure Title: Sep 4 12:56 PM (52 of 65)

53 Title: Sep 4 2:30 PM (53 of 65)

54 Title: Sep 22 7:10 AM (54 of 65) photo 51 X ray diffraction of sodium salt of DNA by Rosalind Franklin

55 Nucleic Acids function: store and transmit hereditary information two types: 1. RNA ribonucleic acid used in protein synthesis single polynucleotide chain Title: Sep 4 1:11 PM (55 of 65)

56 2. DNA deoxyribonucleic acid used for replication of DNA directs RNA synthesis has information for all cell activities, but proteins are responsible for implementing the instructions for the DNA double helix (Watson and Crick 1953) Adenine pairs with thymine Cytosine pairs with guanine Complementary strands Title: Sep 4 1:28 PM (56 of 65)

57 Title: Sep 4 2:31 PM (57 of 65) Crick and Watson

58 Title: Sep 4 2:32 PM (58 of 65) Rosalind Franklin

59 structure of nucleic acids are polymers of monomers of nucleotides nucleotide = nitrogen base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate group Nitrogen bases = rings of carbon and nitrogen two types: 1. purines: adenine and guanine have a six membered ring joined to a five membered ring 2. pyrimidines: thymine, cytosine & uracil have a single six membered ring Title: Sep 4 1:16 PM (59 of 65)

60 Title: Sep 4 2:34 PM (60 of 65)

61 Pentose sugar: Ribose in RNA Deoxyribose in DNA a pentose sugar + a nitrogen base = nucleoside a pentose sugar + nitrogen base + phosphate = nucleotide polynucleotides form by phosphodiester linkages (sugar of one nucleotide attached to phosphate of other nucleotide) Title: Sep 4 1:21 PM (61 of 65)

62 each gene has a unique sequence of nitrogen bases and can be hundred or thousands of nucleotides long DNA and proteins can be used as markers for evolution due to the heredity of it from parents to offspring two species that are closely related based on fossil evidence should also be alike in having similar DNA and protein sequences Title: Sep 4 1:25 PM (62 of 65)

63 Title: Sep 4 2:34 PM (63 of 65)

64 Title: Sep 4 2:35 PM (64 of 65)

65 Title: Sep 16 3:17 PM (65 of 65)

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